The present paper concentrates a review of research literature on the effects of paternal absence on the development of a child’s identity and psychological well-being. This paper will explore the importance of fatherhood from a psychoanalytic viewpoint and its influence on the psychological, social, and sexual development of children. During the past generation, the intricacies of modern society have changed the composition of the modern family (Beaty, 1995). Social-cultural factors were catalytic in the fracturing of the traditional family unit and were instrumental in the formation of a multiplicity of alternative family structures (Beaty), the most common of which is paternal absence.

In psychoanalytic theory, Freud postulated that the Oedipus/Electra Complex[1] was the most important event of childhood, an event that would have a great affect on a child’s subsequent adult life. Freud believed that the Oedipus/Electra complex was resolved through a process known as ’sex role identification’ (Kagan, Segal, & Haveman, 2004), a significant period in a child’s life when he/she identifies with the same-sex parent and begins to develop his/her own identity. Freud believed the superego resulted from introjections of parental standards and the resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex (Ewen R. B., 2003). In Psychoanalytic theory, the superego, the third structure of the personality to develop, is made up of two parts; the ego ideal, which rewards appropriate behavior, and the conscience, which contains parental and societal values and attitudes (Bee & Boyd, 2007). Within this Psychoanalytic viewpoint, one could see how paternal absence may result in some form of maladaptive psychological adjustment for a child.

Hetherington (1966) found that children who come to be paternally deprived by the age of five suffer more psychological and interpersonal difficulties than children who become paternally deprived after the age of five. According to Freud, this age coincides with ‘the phallic stage’ of the psychosexual stages of development, described as a time when the father enters a child’s psychic life. In addition, during this phase the child resolves emotional conflicts that results from the Oedipus/Electra complex and begins to identify with the same sex parent (Kagan et al). The research literature subsequently shows that paternal absence significantly affects male and female children differently.

Research that examined the relationship between paternal involvement in adolescence and psychological distress in adulthood suggests that a father absence contributes to lower academic attainment and well-being for children in single mother families (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003).  The research confirms that children in single mother families, compared to father-present families, not only tend to have lower scores on measures of academic achievement and cognitive ability but have a higher risk of delinquency and deviant behavior, and were more likely to drop out of school and give birth outside of marriage.

Adelson’s research (1980, as cited in Beaty, 1995) confirms Hetherington’s findings, but also points out the adverse effects of paternal absence on the sex role development of boys. Furthermore, Beaty (1995) clearly demonstrates that a father’s absence not only negatively affected the sex role identification of boys, but impaired their adjustment to peer groups as well. Although Santrock (1975) pointed out the similarities between social learning theory and other theoretical points of view on the importance of a father’s responsibility in teaching morality to his son, he failed to prove a father absence has a negative impact on the moral development of boys in his own 1975 experiment. Furthermore, Santrock maintained that the burden placed on the mother as a result of the departure of the father affected the quality of the relationship between a mother and her children. Accordingly, a father’s absence not only deprives a child of the father but also in some way diminishes the relationship between mother and child.

Current research by Bemporad (1995) found that a father’s departure and/or absence might result in the male child’s rejection of the male role model and his incapability or reluctance to switch from the maternal figure to the paternal figure. Which may affect a boy’s identification process (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007)  resulting in sexual identity confusion, alternative sexual preferences, and an inability to establish meaningful heterosexual relationships with a woman.

According to Freud, a child’s strongest need is a father’s love and protection (Ewen E. , 1996). Therefore, a child who has experienced the loss of a parent or whose need for nurturance and love has not been fulfilled develops a vulnerability for depression (Butcher et al). According to Freud, the infant will grow up feeling unworthy of love, will have low self-esteem, and will be prone to depression when faced with real or perceived losses (Ewen R. B., 2003). Nielsen (2007) found that fathers generally have as much, or more, impact than mothers on many aspects of their daughter’s lives. Nielsen goes on to say that a father’s absence has negative influence and negative impact on the daughters ability to trust, and relate well to the males in her life. Nielsen goes on to say that, father-absent daughters are usually less confident, less self-reliant, and less successful in school and in their careers than father-present daughters. Furthermore, research shows that girls who have good relationships with their fathers are less likely to develop eating disorders (Nielsen, 2007).

According to Beck’s Cognitive Model of Depression, certain types of early experiences can lead to the dysfunctional beliefs that leave a person vulnerable to depression later in life if certain stressors are activated (Butcher et al). Beck (1967) found that these dysfunctional beliefs, or ‘deprossogenic schemas’, are counterproductive to a child’s healthy psychological adjustment and are thought to develop during childhood and adolescence as a function of one’s negative experience with one’s parents and significant others. Furthermore, Beck states that they serve as the underlying vuneralbitly to the development of depression.

In her research, Flouri (2007) looked at the role of father involvement and the relationship between fathering and adolescent psychological adjustment. She found that a father’s involvement was negatively related to children’s hyperactivity and total difficulties and positively related to children’s prosocial behavior. Additionally, Flouri’s study showed that father involvement has a correlation to specific aspects of child adjustment. Adolescent children in father-absent families are much more likely to develop behavioral problems than adolescent children in father-present families (Flouri).

In conclusion, the result of the metamorphosis of the traditional family unit due to social-cultural influence was catalytic in the formation of many alternative family structures of which paternal absence is the most common. The review of research literature acknowledges the need for more research on paternal involvement, and confirms the importance of father involvement. According to the Freudian point of view, the father-daughter relationship is crucial to the development of femininity and the preservation of womanhood and is instrumental to the development of the daughter’s ability to trust and relate well to the men in her life. For children who experience the father’s absence prior to the age of five, the overall effects of paternal loss seem to be profound and long-term, an age that is describes as a time when the father enters a child’s psychic life. The research literature reviewed clearly supports Freud’s view that father absence affects the gender role development of boys and may be the cause of depression and other maladjustment. Paternal absence has a far-reaching, lifelong impact on both boy and girls psychological well-being in different yet profound ways.

References

Beaty, L. A. (1995). Effects of paternal absence on male adolescents’ peer relations and self-image. Adolescence , 30 (120), 873-879.

Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and Treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Bee, H., & Boyd, D. (2007). The Developing Child (11 ed.). New York, New York, USA: Pearson.

Bemporad, J. R. (1995). Long-term analytic treatment of depression. In E. E. Beckman, & W. R. Leber (Eds.), Handbook of Depression (2 ed., pp. 404-424). New York: Guilford.

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2007). Abnormal Psychology (13 ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Ewen, E. (1996). Oedipus Complex. In R. J. Corsini, & A. J. Auerbach (Eds.), Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology (2 ed., Vol. 4, pp. 629-630). New York, NJ , USA: Wiley & Sons Inc.

Ewen, R. B. (2003). An Introduction to the Theories of Personality (6 ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Flouri, E. (2007). Fathering and adolescents’ psychological adjustment: the role of fathers’ involvment, residence and biology status. Child: care, health and development , 34 (2), 152-161.

Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvment in children’s later mental health. Journal of Adolescence , 26, 63-78.

Hetherington, E. M. (1966). Effects of paternal absence on sex-typed behaviors in Negro and white preadolescent males. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 4 (1), 87-91.

Kagan, J., Segal, J., & Haveman, E. (2004). Kagan & Segal’s Psychology: An Introduction (9 ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Wadsworth.

Nielsen, L. (2007). College daughters’ relationships with their fathers: A 15 year. College Student Journal , 41 (1), 112-121.

Santrock, J. W. (1975). Father Absence, Perceived Maternal Behavior, and Moral Development in Boys. Child Development , 46 (3), 753-757.

---

[1] Defined as an emotional triangle within the family (mother, father, child) in which a child develops an emotional attachment and a sexual attraction for the opposite-sex parent, and feelings of competitiveness and rivalry for the same-sex parent (Ewen E., 1996).

SR 1 – Substance Abuse Disorders

• Drug abuse disorders may involve physiological dependence on substances, such as opiates –particularly heroine — or barbitutes;
  
• However, psychological dependence may also occur with any of the drugs that are commonly used today–for example marijuana.

SR 2 – Etiology

• A number of factors are considered important in the etiology of substance disorders.
  
• Some substances, such as alcohol and opium, stimulate brain centers that produce euphoria-which then becomes a desired goal.

SR 3 – Genetic Factors

• It is widely believed that genetic factors play some role in causing susceptibility through such biological avenues as metabolic rates and sensitivity to alcohol.
  

SR 4 – Psychological Factors

• Psychological factors — such as psychological vulnerability, stress, and the desire for tension reduction–
  
• And disturbed marital relationships are also seen as important etiologic elements in substance-abuse disorders.

SR5 -

• Although the existence of an “alcoholic personality type” has been disavowed by most theorist, a variety of personality factors play an important role I the development and expression of addictive disorders.
  

SR6 – Sociocultural Factors

• Sociocultural factors such as attitudes toward alcohol may predispose individuals to alcoholism.
  

SR7 – Possible Causal Factors

• Possible causal factors in drug abuse include the influence of peer groups, the existence of a so called “drug culture”, and the availability of drugs as tension reducers or pain relievers.
  

SR8-

• Some recent research has explored a possible physiological basis for drug abuse.
  
• The discovery of endorphins, morphine-like substances produced by the body, has led to speculation that a biochemical basis of drug addiction may exist.

SR9 – The Pleasure Pathway

• The so-called “pleasure pathway”–the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway (MCLP)–has come under a great deal of study in recent years as the possible potential anatomic site underlying the addictions.
  

SR10 – Treatment

• The treatment of individuals who abuse alcohol or drugs is generally difficult and often fails.
  
• The abuse may reflect a long history of psychological difficulties; interpersonal and marital distress may be involved; and financial and legal problems may be present.

SR11 -

• In addition, all such problems must be dealt with by an individual who may deny that the problem exist and who may not be motivated to work on them.
  

SR12 -

• Several approaches to the treatment of chronic alcohol or drug abuse have been developed–
  
• For example, medication to deal with withdrawal symptoms and withdrawal delirium, and dietary evaluation and treatment for malnutrition.

SR13 – Therapies

• Psychological therapies such as group therapy and behavioral interventions may be effective with some alcohol-or drug-abusing individuals.
  
• Another source of help for alcohol abusers is AA;
• However, the extent of successful outcomes with this program has not been sufficiently studied.

SR14 -

• Most treatment programs require abstinence;
  
• However, over the past 20 years, research has suggested that some alcohol abusers can learn to control their drinking while continuing to drink socially.
• The controversy surrounding controlled drinking continues

Key Words

addictive behavior (P. 412) Behavior based on the pathological need for a substance or activity; it may involve the abuse of substances such as nicotine, or cocaine, or gambling.

alcoholism (p, 413) dependence on alcohol that seriously interferes with life adjustment.

amphetamine (P. 438) drug that produces a psychologically stimulating and energizing effect.

barbiturates (P. 439) synthetic drugs that act as depressants to calm the individual and induce sleep.

caffeine (p, 431) A drug of dependence found in many commonly available drinks and foods.

cocaine (p, 437) stimulating and pain-reducing psychoactive drug.

Ecstasy (p, 442) a human manufactured drug that is take orally and acts as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. The drug effects include feeling of mental stimulation, emotional warmth, enhanced sensory perception, and increased physical energy. The adverse health effects of the drug can be extreme and include symptoms of nausea, chills, sweating, teeth clenching, muscle cramping, and blurred vision.

endorphins (P. 436) opiates produced in the brain and throughout the body that function like neurotransmitters to dampen pain sensations. They also play a role in the body’s building up tolerance to certain drugs.

flashback (P. 442) involuntary recurrence of perceptual distortions or hallucinations weeks or months after taking a drug; in post-traumatic stress disorder, a dissociative state in which the person briefly relives the traumatic experience.

hallucinogens (P. 441) drugs known to induce hallucinations; often referred to as psychedelics.

hashish (p, 443) strongest drug derived from the hemp plant; a relative of marijuana that is usually smoked.

heroin (P. 433) powerful psychoactive drug, chemically derived from morphine, that relieves pain but is even more intense and addictive than morphine.

LSD (P. 441) (lysergic acid diethylamide). The most potent of the hallucinogens. It is odorless, colorless, and tasteless, and an amount smaller than a grain of salt can produce intoxications.

marijuana (P. 443) mild hallucinogenic drug derived from the hemp plant, often smoked in cigarettes called reefers of joints.

mescaline (P. 442) Hallucinogenic drug derived from the peyote cactus.

mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway (MCLP) (p.419) Center of psychoactive drug activation in the brain. This area is involved in the release of dopamine and in mediating the rewarding properties of drugs.

methadone (P. 436) Synthetic narcotic related to heroin; used in treatment of heroin addiction because it satisfies the craving for heroin without producing serious psychological impairment.

morphine (P. 433) Addictive drug derived from opium that can serve as a powerful sedative and pain reliever.

nicotine (P. 431) Addictive akaloid that is the chief active ingredient in tobacco and a drug of dependence.)

opium (P. 433) Narcotic drug that leads to physiological dependence and the development of tolerance; derivatives are morphine, heroin, and codeine.

pathological gambling (P. 445) Progressive disorder characterized by loss of control over gambling, preoccupation with gambling and obtaining money for gambling, and irrational gambling behavior in spite of adverse consequences.

psilocybin (P. 442) Hallucinogenic drug derived from a variety of mushrooms.

psychoactive drugs (P. 412) Drugs that affect mental functioning.

substance abuse (P. 412) Maladaptive pattern of substance use manifested by recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of the substance.

substance dependence (p, 412) Severe form of substance use disorder involving physiological dependence on the substance, tolerance, withdrawal, and compulsive drug taking.

tolerance (P. 412) Need for increased amounts of a substance to achieve the desired effects.

toxicity (P. 412) Poisonous nature of a substance.

withdrawal symptoms (P. 412) Physical symptoms such as sweating, tremors, and tension that accompany abstinence from some drugs.

SR 1 -

• Emotional factors influence the development of many physical disorders and play an important role in the course of disease.
  
• DSM-IV-TR recognizes this with the category called “Psychological Factors Affecting a General Medical Condition“

SR 2 -

• To recognize that psychological problems can also result from medical problems, DMS-IV-TR also has a category called, “Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition“
  

SR 3 -

• The field of behavioral medicine grew out of the general recognition that physical and emotional wellbeing are intimately interrelated.
  
• It seeks to extend our conception of disease beyond the traditional medical focus on physical breakdown of organs and organ systems.

SR 4 -

• When we are stressed, the autonomic nervous system responds in a variety of ways.
  
• One consequence of stress is increased production of cortisol.
• High levels of this stress hormone may be beneficial in the short term but problematic over the longer term.

SR 5 -

• In the immune system, specialized white blood cells called B-cells and T-cells respond to antigens such as viruses and bacteria.
  
• They are assisted by natural killer cells, granulocytes, and macrophages.

SR 6 -

• Psychoneuroimmunology is an exciting and developing field.
  
• It is concerned with the interactions between the nervous system and the immune system.

SR 7 -

• Cytokines are chemicals messengers that allow the brain and the immune system to communicate with each other.
  
• Some cytokines respond to a challenge to the immune system by causing an inflammatory response.
• Other cytokines, called anti-inflammatory cytokines, dampen the response that the immune systems makes when it is challenged.

SR 8 -

• Negative emotional states, such as being under a lot of stress or having low social support, can impair the functioning of the immune system and the cardiovascular system, Leaving a person more vulnerable to disease and infection.
  
• Damaging habits and lifestyles such as smoking and obesity also enhance risk for physical disease.

SR 9 -

• Many physical illnesses seem to be linked to chronic negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, and depression.
  
• Hostility is well established as an independent risk factor for CHD.
• The same is true of depression.

SR 10 -

• Positive psychology is an emerging field that is concerned with human traits and resources associated with health and well-being.
  
• One factor that is associated with greater well-being is having an optimistic outlook on life.

SR 11 -

• Factors such as genetic vulnerabilities, excessive autonomic reactivity, and possible organ weaknesses remain important in our understanding of the causes of physical diseases.
  
• They must be a part of treatment considerations whenever physical disease occurs, regardless of strong evidence of psychological contributions to its development.

SR 12 -

• A common factor in much psychosocially mediate physical disease is inadequacy in an individuals coping resources for managing stressful life circumstances.
  
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy, in particular, shows much promise in alleviating this type of health-endangering problem

Key Terms

allostatic load (P. 347) the biological cost of adapting to stress. Under conditions of high stress our allostatic load is high. When we are calm, our allostatic load is low and our bodies are not experiencing any of the physiological consequences of stress (e.g., racing heart, high levels of cortisol).

antigens (P. 348) a foreign body (e.g., a virus or bacteria) or an internal threat (e.g., tumor) that can trigger an immune response

B-cell (P. 348) A type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow, that is (along with T-cells) very important in the immune system. B-cells produce specific antibodies in response to specific antigens.

behavioral medicine (P. 344) broad interdisciplinary approach to the treatment of physical disorders thought to have psychological factors as major aspects in their causation and/or maintenance.

biofeedback (P. 366) treatment technique in which a person is taught to influence his or her own physiological processes that were formerly thought to be involuntary.

chronic fatigue syndrome (US) (p.367) a debilitating illness characterized by disabling fatigue that last 6 months or more and occurs with other symptoms.

cortisol (P. 347) human stress hormone released by the cortex of the adrenal glands.

cytokines (P. 348) Small protein molecules that enable the brain and the immune system to communicated with each other. Cytokines can augment or enhance an immune system response or cause immunosuppression, depending on the specific cytokine that is released.

essential hypertension (P. 355) high blood pressure with no specific known physical cause.

health psychology (P. 344) subspecialty within behavioral medicine that deals with psychology’s contributions to diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological components of physical dysfunction.

HPA axis (P. 347) the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a hormonal feedback system that becomes activated by stress and results in the production of cortisol.

hypertension (P. 355) high blood pressure, defined as a persisting systolic blood pressure of 140 or more and a diastolic blood pressure of 90 or greater.

immunosuppression (P. 350) a down-regulation or dampening of the immune system. This can be short or long term and can be triggered by injury, stress, illness, and other factors.

observational study (P. 363)

placebo effect (p, 354) positive effect experience ager an inactive treatment is administered in such a way that a person thinks he or she is receiving an active treatment.

positive psychology (P. 353) a new field that focuses on human traits (e.g., optimisms) and resources that are potentially important for health and well-being.

psychoneuroimmunology (p, 350) study of the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system and the influence of these factors on behavior.

psychophysiological (psychosomatic) disorders (p.346) physical disorders in which psychological factors are believed to play a major causative role

T-cell (P. 348) a type of white blood cell that, when activated, can recognize specific antigens. T-cells play an important role in the immune system.

Type A behavior pattern (P. 356) excessive competitive drive even when it is unnecessary, impatience or time urgency, and hostility.

Type D personality (P. 357) Type D (for distressed) personality is characterized by high levels of negative emotions and social anxiety. Research suggest that Type D personality is linked to heart attacks.

SR 1 – Personality Disorders

• Personality disorders appear to be inflexible and distorted behavioral patterns and traits that result in maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to other people and the environment.
  

SR 2 – Diagnosis

• Even with structured interviews, the reliability of diagnosing personality disorders typically is less than ideal.
  
• Most researchers agree that a dimensional approach for assessing personality disorders would be preferable.

SR 3 – Cause?

• It is difficult to determine the causes of personality disorders because most people with one personality disorder also have at least one more and because most studies to date are retrospective.
  

SR 4 – Three general Clusters of personality disorder have been described in the DSM.

• Cluster A: includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders seem odd or eccentric.
  • Little is known about the causes of paranoid and schizoid disorders,
  • But genetic and other biological factors are implicated in schizotypal personality disorder.
• Cluster B: includes histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial,
  and borderline personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders share a tendency to be dramatic, emotional, and erratic.
  • Little is known about the causes of histrionic and narcissistic disorders.
  • Certain biological and psychosocial causal factors have been identified as increasing the likelihood of developing borderline personality disorder in those at risk because of high levels of impulsivity and effective instability.
• Cluster C: includes avoidant, dependant, obsessive-compulsive,
  personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders show fearfulness or tension, as in anxiety-based disorders.
  • Children with an inhibited temperament may be at heightened risk for avoidant personality disorder,
  • And individuals high on neuroticism and agreeableness, with authoritarian and overprotective parents, may be at heightened risk for dependent personality disorder.

SR 5 – Treatment

• There is relatively little research on treatments for most personality disorders.
  
  • Treatment of the Cluster C disorders seems most promising,
  • And treatment of Cluster A disorders is most difficult.
  • A new form of behavior therapy (dialectical behavior therapy) shows considerable promise for treating borderline personality disorder, which is in Cluster B.

SR 6 – Psychopathy

• A person with psychopathy is callous and unethical,
  
• Without loyalty or close relationships, but often with superficial charm and intelligence.
• Individuals with a diagnosis of ASPD ( and often psychopathy) engage in an antisocial, impulsive, and socially deviant lifestyle.
  • Genetic and temperamental, learning, and adverse environmental factors seem to be important in causing psychopathy and ASPD.
  • Psychopaths also show deficiencies in fear and anxiety as well as more general emotional deficits.
  • Treatment of individuals with psychopathy is difficult, partly because they rarely see any need to change and tend to blame other people for their problems.

KeyTerms

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) (P. 384) Disorder characterized by continual violation of and disregard for the rights of others through deceitful, aggressive or antisocial behavior, typically without remorse or loyalty to anyone.

avoidant personality disorder (P. 388) Extreme social inhibition and introversion, hypersensitivity to criticism and rejection, limited social relationships, and low self-esteem.

borderline personality disorder (BPD) (P. 385)Impulsivity and instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and moods.

dependent personality disorder (P. 390) Extreme dependence on others, particularly the need to be taken care of, leading to clinging and submissive behavior.

depressive personality disorder (P. 392) Provisional category of personality disorder in DSM-IV- TR that involves a pattern of depressive cognitions and behaviors that begins by early adulthood and is pervasive in nature.

histrionic personality disorder (P. 380) Excessive attention seeking and emotional instability, and self-dramatization.

narcissistic personality disorder (P. 382) Exaggerated sense of self importance, preoccupation with being admired, and lack of empathy for the feelings of others.

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) (P. 391) Perfectionism and excessive concern with maintaining order, control, and adherence to rules.

paranoid personality disorder (P. 376) Pervasive suspiciousness and distrust of others.

passive-aggressive personality disorder (P. 392) Provisional category of personality disorder in DSM-IV- TR characterized by a pattern of passive resistance to demands in social or work situations, which may take such forms as simple resistance to performing routine tasks, being sullen or argumentative, or alternating

between defiance and submission.

personality disorder (P.373) Gradual development of inflexible and distorted personality and behavioral patterns that result in persistently maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to the world.

psychopathy (P. 395) A condition involving the features of antisocial personality disorder and such traits as lack of empathy, inflated and arrogant self-appraisal, and glib and superficial charm.

schizoid personality disorder (P. 377) Inability to form social relationships or express feelings and lack of interest in doing so.

schizotypal personality disorder (P. 379) Excessive introversion, pervasive social interpersonal deficits, cognitive and perceptual distortions, and eccentricities in communication and behavior.

SR 1 – 3 Types of Eating Disorders

• DSM-IV-TR recognizes three different eating disorders: anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder NOS (not otherwise specified).
  
• A forth type of eating disorder, binge eating disorder, is listed in the Appendix and is not yet part of the formal DSM.

SR 2 – Anorexia Nervous and Bulimia Nervous

• Both anorexia nervous and bulimia nervosa are characterized by an intense fear of becoming fat and a drive for thinness.
  
• Patients with anorexia nervosa are seriously underweight.
• This is not true of patients with bulimia nervosa.

SR 3 – Prevalence

• Eating disorders are more common in women than in men.
  
• They can develop at any age, although they typically begin in adolescence.

SR 4 -

• Anorexia nervosa has a lifetime prevalence of around 0.5 percent.
  
• Bulimia nervosa is more common, with a lifetime prevalence of 1 to 3 percent.
• Many more people suffer from less severe forms of disturbed eating patterns.

SR 5 – Genetic Factors

• Genetic factors play a role in eating disorders, although exactly how important genes are in the development of pathological eating patterns is still unclear.
  

SR 6 -

• The neurotransmitter serotonin has been implicated in eating disorders.
  
• Serotonin is also involved in mood disorders, which are highly comorbid with eating disorders.

SR 7- Sociocultural Influences

• Sociocultural influences are important on the develpoment of eating disorders.
  
• Our society places great value on being thin.
• Western values about thinness may be spreading, which may help explain why eating disorders are now found throughout the world.

SR 9 – Risk Factors

• Individual risk factors such as internalizing the thin ideal, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect, and perfectionism have been implicated in the development of eating disorders.
  

SR 10 – Treatment Approaches

• Anorexia nervosa is very difficult to treat.
  
• Treatment is long term
• And many patients resist getting well.
• Current treatment approaches include tube feeding (in severe cases), family therapy, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CBT.
• Medication are also used.

SR 11 -

• The treatment of choice for bulimia nervosa is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CBT.
  
• CBT is also helpful for binge eating disorder.

SR 12 – Obesity

• Obesity is defined as having a Body Mass Index BMI of 30 or above.
  
• Being obese is associated with many medical problems and with increased risk of death from heart attack.
• Obesity is not viewed as an eating disorder or as a psychiatric condition.

SR 13 -

• A tendency to being thin or heavy may be inherited.
  
• However, unhealthy lifestyles are the most important cause of obesity.

SR 14 -

• People are more likely to be obese if they are older, are female, or are of low socioeconomic status (SES).
  
• Being a member of an ethnic group is also a risk factor for obesity.

SR 15 -

• Obesity is a chronic problem.
  
• Medications help patients to lose small amounts of weight; drastic weight loss usually requires bariatric surgery.

SR 16 -

• Because obesity tends to be a lifelong problem, and treating obesity is so difficult, there is now a focus on trying to prevent people from becoming obese in the first place.
  
• Implementing many approaches that have been recommended will require major changes in social policy.

 
 

anorexia nervosa (P. 313) Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming “fat;’ coupled with refusal to maintain adequate nutrition and with severe loss of body weight.

binge-eating disorder (BED) (P. 319) Distinct from nonpurging bulimia nervosa, whereby binging is not accompanied by inappropriate compensatory behavior to limit weight gain.

body mass index (BMI) (P. 333) An estimation of total body fat calculated as body weight in kilograms divided by height (in meters) squared.

bulimia nervosa (P. 315) Frequent occurrence of binge-eating episodes, accompanied by a sense of loss of control of overeating and recurrent inappropriate behavior such as purging or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) (P. 332) Therapy based on altering dysfunctional thoughts and cognitive distortions.

eating disorder (P. 312) Disorders of food ingestion, regurgitation, or attitude that affect health and well-being, such as anorexia, bulimia, or binge-eating

eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) (P. 319) A diagnostic category reserved for disorders of eating that do not meet criteria for any other specific eating disorder.

grehlin (P. 335) Grehlin is a hormone that is produced by the stomach. It stimulates appetite.

leptin (P. 335) Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells that acts to reduce food intake.

negative affect (P. 329) The experience of an emotional state characterized by negative emotions. Such negative emotions might include anger, anxiety, irritability, and sadness.

obesity (P. 333) The condition of having elevated fat masses in the body. Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

perfectionism (P. 329) The need to get things exactly right. A personality trait that may increase risk for the development of eating disorders, perhaps because perfectionistic people may be more likely to idealize thinness.

purge (P. 314) Purging refers to the removal of food from the body by such means as self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.

serotonin (P. 324) A neurotransmitter from the indolamine class that is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Also referred to as S-HT (S-hydroxytryptamine), this neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in a wide range of psychopathological conditions.

  

SR 1 – Somatoform Disorders Defined

• Somatoform disorders are those in which psychological problems are manifested in physical disorders (or complaints of physical disorders) that often mimic medical conditions but for which no evidence of corresponding organic pathology can be found.
  
  • In hypochondriasis, an anxious preoccupation with having a disease is based on misinterpretations of bodily signs or symptoms.
  • Medical reassurance does not help.
  • Somatization disorder is characterized by many different complaints of physical ailments, in four symptom categories, over at least several years.
  • The symptoms need not actually have existed as long as they were complained about.
  • Pain Disorder is characterized by pain severe enough to disrupt life but in the absence of enough medical pathology to explain its presence.
  • Conversion disorder involves patterns of symptoms or deficits affecting sensory or voluntary motor functions, leading one to think there is a medical or neurological condition, even though medical examination reveals no physical basis for the symptoms.
  • Body dysmorphic disorder involves obsessive preoccupation with some perceived flaw or flaws in one’s own appearance.
  • Compulsive checking behaviors (such as mirror checking) and avoidance of social activities are also common.

SR 2 – Dissociative Disorders Defined

• Dissociative disorders occur when the process that normally regulate awareness and the multi-channel capacities of the mind apparently become disorganized, leading to various anomalies of consciousness and personal identity.
  
  • Depersonalization Disorder occurs in people who expereince persistenc and recurrent episodes of derealization (losing one;s sense of reality of the outside world) and depersonalization (losing one’s sense of oneself and one’s own reality).
  • Dissociative Amnesia involves an inability to recall previously stored information that cannot be accounted for by ordinary forgetting and seems to be a common initial reaction to highly stressful circumstances.
  • The memory loss is primarily for episodic or autobiographical memory.
  • In Dissociative Fugue, a person not only goes into an amnesic state but also leaves his or her home surroundings and becomes confused about his or her identity, sometimes assuming a new one.
  • In Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), the person manifest at least two or more distinct identities that alternate in some way in taking control of behavior.
  • Alter identities may differ in many ways from the host identity.
  • There are many controversies about DID, including wehter it is real or faked; how it develops; whether memories of childhood abuse are real; and, if the memories are real, whether the abuse played a causal role.

 
 

alter identities (P. 299) In a person with dissociative identity disorder, personalities other than the host personality.

body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) (p.290) Obsession with some perceived flaw or flaws in one’s appearance.

conversion disorder (P. 286) Pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss of control appear without any underlying organic pathology; originally called hysteria.

depersonalization (P. 295) Loss of sense of personal identity, often with a feeling of being something or someone else.

depersonalization disorder (P. 295) Dissociative disorder in which there is a loss of the sense of self.

derealization (P. 295) Experience in which the external world is perceived as distorted and lacking a stable and palpable existence.

dissociation (P. 280) The human mind’s capacity to mediate complex mental activity in channels split off from or independent of conscious awareness.

dissociative amnesia (P. 297) Psychogenically caused memory failure

dissociative disorders (P. 280) Conditions involving a disruption in an individual’s sense of personal identity.

dissociative fugue (P. 297) A dissociative amnesic state in which the person is not only amnesic for some or all aspects of his or her past but also departs from home surroundings.

dissociative identity disorder (DID) (p.298)

Condition in which a person

manifests at least two or more distinct identities or personality states that alternate in some way in taking control of behavior. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

factitious disorder (P. 290) Feigning of symptoms to maintain the personal benefits that a sick role may provide, including the attention and concern of medical personnel and/or family members.

factitious disorder by proxy (p.291) A variant of factitious disorder in which a person induces medical or psychological symptoms in another person who is under his or her care (usually a child).

host identity (P. 299)

The identity in dissociative identity disorder which is most frequently encountered and carries the person’s real name. This is not usually the original identity and it may or may not be the best adjusted identity.

hypochondriasis (P. 281) Preoccupation, based on misinterpretations of bodily symptoms, with the fear that one has a serious disease.

hysteria (P. 287) Older term used for conversion disorders; involves the appearance of symptoms of organic illness in the absence of any related organic pathology.

malingering (P. 290) Consciously faking illness or symptoms of disability to achieve some specific nonmedical objective.

pain disorder (P. 285) Experience of pain of sufficient duration and severity to cause significant life disruption in the absence of medical pathology that would explain it.

primary gain (P. 287) In psychodynamic theory it is the goal achieved by symptoms of conversion disorder by keeping internal intrapsychic conflicts out of awareness. In contemporary terms it is the goal achieved by symptoms of conversion disorder by allowing the person to escape or avoid stressful situations.

secondary gain (P. 287) External circumstances that tend to reinforce the maintenance of disability

soma (P. 280) Greek word for body. Somatoform disorders involve complaints of bodily symptoms or defects suggesting the presence of

medical problems but for which no organic basis can be found that satisfactorily explains the symptoms.

somatization disorder (P. 283) Multiple complaints, over a long period beginning before age 30, of physical ailments that are inadequately explained by independent findings of physical illness or injury and that lead to medical treatment or to significant life impairment.

somatoform disorders (P. 280) Conditions involving physical complaints or disabilities that occur without any evidence of physical pathology to account for them.

 
 

 
 

 

SR 1 – Mood Disorders

• Mood disorders are this in which extreme variations in mood – either low or high – are the predominant feature.
  
• Although some variations in mood are normal, for some people the extremity of moods in either direction becomes seriously maladaptive, even to the extent of suicide.

SR 2 – Unipolar Mood Disorders

• Most people with mood disorders have some form of Unipolar depression–dysthymia or major depression.
  
• Such individuals experience a range of affective, cognitive, motivational and biological symptoms including persistent sadness, negative thoughts about the self and the future, lack of energy or initiative, too much or too little sleep, and gaining or losing weight.
  • Among biological causal factors for unipolor disorder, there is evidence of a moderate genetic contribution to the vulnerability for major depression, but probably not for dysthymia.
  • Moreover, major depression are clearly associated with multiple interacting disturbances in neurochemical, neuroendorine, and neurophysiological systems.
  • Disruptions in circadian and seasonal rhythms are also prominent features of depression.
  • Among psychosocial theories of the causes of unipolor depression are Beck’s cognitive theory and the reformulated helplessness and hopelessness theories, which are formulate as diathesis-stress models.
  • The diathesis is cognitive in nature (e.g., dysfunctional beliefs and pessimistic attributional style, respectively),
  • And stressful life events are often important in determining when those diatheses actually lead to depression.
  • Personality variables such as neuroticism may also serve as diatheses for depression.
  • Psychodynamic and interpersonal theories of unipolar depression emphasize the importance of early experiences especially early losses and the quality of the parent-child relationship) as setting up a predisposition for depression.

SR 3 – Bipolar Disorders

• In the bipolar disorders (cyclothymia and Bipolar I and II disorders), the person experiences episodes of both depression and hypomania or mania.
  
• During manic or hypo manic episodes, the symptoms are essentially the opposite of those experienced during a depressive episode.
  • Biological causal factors probably play an even more prominent role for bipolar disorders than for unipolor disorders.
  • The genetic contribution to bipolar disorder is among the strongest of such contributions to the major psychiatric disorders.
  • Neurochemical imbalances, abnormalities of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and disturbances in biological rhythms all play a role in bipolar disorder.
  • Stressful life events may be involved in precipitating manic or depressive episodes, but it is unlikely that they cause the disorder.

SR 4 – Treatments

• Biologically based treatments such as medications or electroconvulsive therapy are often used in the treatment of the more severe major disorders.
  
• Increasingly, however, psychological treatments are also being used to good affect in many cases of these more severe disorders, as well as in the milder forms of mood disorder.
• Considerable evidence suggest that recurrent depression is best treated by specialized forms of psychotherapy or by maintenance for prolonged periods on medications.

SR 5 – Suicide

• Suicide is a constant danger with depressive syndromes of any type or severity.
  
• Accordingly, an assessment of suicide risk is essential in the proper management of depressive disorders.
  • A small minority of suicides appear unavoidable-chiefly those were the person really wants to die and uses a highly lethal method.
  • However, a substantial amount of suicidal behavior is performed as a means of indirect interpersonal communication.
  • Somewhere between these extremes is a large group of people who are ambivalent about killing themselves and who initiate dangerous actions that they may or may not carry to completion, depending on momentary events and impulses.
  • Suicide prevention (or intervention) programs generally consist of crisis intervention in the form of suicide hotline.
  • Although these programs undoubtedly avert fatal suicide attempts in some cases, the long-term efficacy of treatment aimed at preventing suicide in those at high risk is much less clear at the present time.

Key terms

attributions (P. 246) Process of assigning causes to things that happen.

Bipolar I disorder (P. 254) a form of bipolar disorder in which a persons experiences both manic (or mixed) episodes and major depressive episodes.

bipolar disorder with a seasonal pattern (P. 255) Bipolar disorder with recurrences in particular seasons of the year.

Bipolar II disorder (P. 255) A form of bipolar disorder in which the person experiences both hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes.

chronic major depressive disorder (p.234) A disorder in which a major depressive episode does not remit over a two year period.

cyclothymic disorder (P. 253) Mild mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms.

depression (P. 226) Emotional state characterized by extraordinary sadness and dejection.

depressogenic schemas (P. 244) Dysfunctional beliefs that are rigid, extreme, and counterproductive and that are thought to leave one susceptible to depression when experiencing stress.

diathesis-stress theories (P. 242) Diathesis-stress model. View of abnormal behavior as the result of stress operating on an individual who has a biological, psychosocial, or Sociocultural predisposition to developing a specific disorder.

double depression (P. 233) This condition is diagnosed when a person with dysthymia has a superimposed major depressive episode.

dysfunctional beliefs (P. 244) Negative beliefs that are rigid, extreme, and counterproductive.

dysthymic disorder (P. 230) Moderately severe mood disorder characterized by a persistently depressed mood most of the day for more days than not for at least 2 years. Additional symptoms may include poor appetite, sleep disturbance, lack of energy, low selfesteem, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness.

hypomanic episode (P. 253) A condition lasting at least 4 days in which a person experiences abnormally elevated, expansive or irritable mood. At least 3 out of 7 other designated symptoms similar to those in a manic episode must also be present but to a lesser degree than in mania.

learned helplessness (P. 246) A theory that animals and people exposed to uncontrollable aversive events learn that they have no control over these events and this causes them to behave in a passive and helpless manner when later exposed to potentially controllable events. Later extended to become a theory of depression.

major depressive disorder (P. 231)Moderate to severe mood disorder in which a person experiences only major depressive episodes, but no hypomanic, manic or mixed episodes. Single episode if only one; recurrent episode if more than one.

major depressive episode (P. 227) A mental condition in which a person must be markedly depressed for most of every day for most days for at least 2 weeks. In addition, a total of at least 5 out of 9 designated symptoms must also be present during the same time period.

major depressive episode with atypical features (P. 233) A type of major depressive episode which includes a pattern of symptoms characterized by marked mood reactivity, as well as at least 2 out of 4 other designated symptoms.

major depressive episode with melancholic features (P. 232) A type of major depressive episode which includes marked symptoms of loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities, plus at least 3 of 6 other designated symptoms.

mania (P. 226) Emotional state characterized by intense and unrealistic feelings of excitement and euphoria.

manic episode (P. 227) A condition in which a person shows markedly elevated, euphoric, or expansive mood, often interrupted by occasional outbursts of intense irritability or even violence that lasts for at least 1 week. In addition at least 3 out of 7 other designated symptoms must also occur.

mixed episode (P. 254) A condition in which a person is characterized by symptoms of both full-blown manic and major depressive episodes for at least 1 week, whether the symptoms are intermixed or alternate rapidly every few days.

mood disorders (P. 226) Disturbances of mood that are intense and persistent enough to be clearly maladaptive.

mood-congruent delusions (P. 233) Delusions or hallucinations that are consistent with a person’s mood.

negative automatic thoughts (P. 244) Thoughts that are just below the surface of awareness and that involve unpleasant pessimistic predictions.

negative cognitive triad (P. 244) Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.

pessimistic attributional style (p.247) Cognitive style involving a tendency to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative life events.

rapid cycling (P. 256) A pattern of bipolar disorder involving at least four manic or depressive episodes per year.

recurrence (P. 234) A new occurrence of a disorder after a remission of symptom.

relapse (P. 234) Return of the symptoms of a disorder after a fairly short period of time.

seasonal affective disorder (P. 234) Mood disorder involving at least two episodes of depression in the past two years occurring at the same time of year (most commonly fall or winter), with remission also occurring at the same time of year (most commonly spring).

severe major depressive episode with psychotic features (P. 233) Major depression involving loss of contact with reality, often in the form of delusions or hallucinations.

specifiers (P. 232)

suicide (P. 268) Taking one’s own life.

unipolar disorder (P. 226) Mood disorders in which a person experiences only depressive episodes, as opposed to bipolar disorder, in which both manic and depressive episodes occur.