SOC101, Unit II Summary, Outline, & Review for Chapters 7, 8, 9 &10

Principals of Sociology Summary & Outline for Chapters 7, 8, 9 & 10 with Assignment and Unit Test Review Compiled and Edited by Joe Eulo http://PSYCH.MyUCCedu.com CHAPTER 7: CLASS AND STRATIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES WHAT IS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION? Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources. A key characteristic of stratification systems is the extent to which the structure is flexible. Slavery, a form of stratification in which people are owned by others, is a extreme type. In a caste system, people’s status is determined at birth based on their parents’ position in society. The class system, which exists in the United States, is a type of stratification based on ownership of resources and on the type of work people do. THEORIES OF CLASS AND STRATIFICATION BETWEEN MARX AND WEBER Classical perspective on social class focus on Karl Marx and Max Weber who acknowledged social class as a key determinant of social inequality and social change. According to Marx, capitalistic societies are comprised of two classes – the capitalists, who own the means of production, and the workers, who sell their labor to the owners. By contrast, Weber developed a multidimensional concept that focuses on the interplay of wealth, prestige, and power. FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVES ON STRATIFICATION Functionalist perspectives on the U.S. class structure view classes as broad groupings of people who share similar levels of privilege based on their roles in the occupational structure. According to the Davis-Moore thesis, positions that are most important within society, requiring the most talent and training, must be highly rewarded. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES ON STRATIFICATION Conflict perspectives are based on the assumption that social stratification is created and maintained by one group in order to enhance and protect its own economic interests. The stratification of society into different social groups results in wide discrepancies in income, wealth, and access to available goods and services (including health, good nutrition, and education). Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty, which exists when do not have the means to secure the basic necessities of life, and relative poverty, which exists when people maybe able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. There are both economic and structural sources of poverty. Low wages are a key problem, as are unemployment and underemployment. As the gap between rich and poor, employed and unemployed widens, social inequality will increase in the twenty-first century if we do nothing. Given that the well–being of all people is linked, it is incumbent that we ensure that everyone has a job, a living wage, and an equal life chance. WHAT IS POVERTY? Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty, which exists when people do not have the means to secure the basic necessities of life, and relative poverty, which exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living. There are both economic and structural sources of poverty. Page 1 I. WHAT IS SOCIAL STRATIFICATION? I. Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of large social groups based on their control over basic resources. Max Weber’s term life chances describe the extent to which persons within a particular layer of stratification have access to important scarce resources. II. II. GLOBAL SYSTEMS OF STRATIFICATION A. Systems of stratification may be open or closed based on the availability of social mobility – the movement of individuals or groups from one level in a stratification system to another. 1. Intergenerational mobility is the social movement experienced by family members from one generation to the next. 2. Intragenerational mobility is the social movement of individuals within their own lifetime. B. Slavery, a closed system, is an extreme form of stratification in which some people are owned by others. A caste system is a system of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics. The class system is a type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on the type of work people do. C. D. Page 2 III. CLASSICAL PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIAL CLASS. A. Karl Marx: Relation to the means of production 1. According to Marx, class position in capitalistic societies is determined by people’s work situation, or relationship to the means of production. a. The bourgeoisie or capitalist class consists of those who privately own the means of production; the proletariat, or working class, must sell their labor power to the owners in order to earn enough money to survive. b. Class relationships involve inequality and exploitation; workers are exploited as capitalists expropriate a surplus value from their labor. This exploitation results in workers’ alienation. 2. The capitalist class maintained its position by control of the society’s superstructure – comprised of the government, schools, and other social institutions that produce and disseminate ideas perpetuating the existing system. B. Max Weber: Wealth, Prestige, and Power 1. Weber’s mutidimensional approach to stratification focused on the interplay among wealth, prestige, and power as being necessary in determining a person’s class position. Weber placed people who have a similar level of wealth – the value of all of a person’s or family’s economic assets, including income, personal property, and income -producing property – and income in the same class. Prestige is the respect or regard with which a person or status is regarded by others, and those who share similar levels of social prestige belong to the same status group regardless of their level of wealth. Power is the ability of people or groups to carry out their own goals despite opposition from others. Power gives some people the ability to shape society in accordance with their own interests and to direct the actions of others. 2. Wealth, prestige, and power are separate continuums on which people can be ranked from high to low; individuals may be high on one dimension while being low on another. Page 3 Karl Marx’s Theory of Social Class and Max Weber’s View of Stratification Karl Marx’s view of Class Dimensions Unidimensional approach Relation to the means of production Defined as their relationships to the means of Max Weber’s view of Stratification Multi-dimensional approach Wealth, Prestige, Power Defined by common life chances based on market returns to their assets The capitalist class The working class The middle class Defined by spread of rational technique to all spheres of social life Conceived as domination and exclusion Not optimistic about the potential for an end to exploitation Classes production Human history is the history of class struggle Number of Class The capitalist class The working class Defined by private ownership of means of production and exploitation of the working class Capitalism The Problem of Conceived as the exploitation of the working Capitalism class by the capitalist class Solution Overthrow capitalism and establish socialism Page 4 IV. SOCIOLOGICAL MODELS OF THE U.S. CLASS STRUCTURE A. The Weberian Model of the U.S. Class Structure by Dennis Gilbert and Joseph A. Kahl (1998) based on education, occupation of family head, and family income Class Position Characteristics Examples Upper-upper: Kennedy’s Family Lower-upper: Bill Gates Highly educated professionals such as physicians, stockbrokers or corporate managers Medical technicians, nurses, legal and medical secretaries, retail sales-workers Day-care workers, checkout clerks, waitpersons – The wealthiest and most powerful Upper – Comprised of people who own substantial income (Capitalist) – producing assets Class 1 % – Influence the economy and society Upper- – University degrees Middle Class – Authority and independence on the job 14 % – High income Middle Class – a minimum of high school diploma or 30 % – a community college degree – Semiskilled machine operatives Working – Clerks and salespeople in routine Class – Mechanized jobs 30 % – Workers in pink collar occupations – Live from just above to just below the poverty line Working – Unskilled jobs Poor – Seasonal migrant employment in agriculture 20 % – Lower-paid factory jobs – Service jobs – Poor – Seldom employed – Caught in long term deprivation resulting from low levels Underclass of education and income, high rates of unemployment, 5% age or disability – Relying on public or private assistance programs for survival Counter help at restaurants, employed single mothers Single mothers, People with disabilities Page 5 V. INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES A. Income and wealth are very unevenly distributed in the United States 1. Income is the economic gain derived from wages, salaries, income transfers (governmental aid), or ownership of property. 2. Wealth includes not only income but also property such as buildings, land, farms, hoses, factories, cars, and other assets. B. Consequences of Inequality 1. Health and Nutrition: As people’s economic status increases so does their health status; the poor have shorter life expectancies and are at greater risk for chronic illnesses and infectious diseases. About 40 million people in the United States are without health insurance coverage. 2. Education and life chance are directly linked; while functionalists view education as an “elevator” for social mobility, conflict theorist stress that schools are agencies for reproducing the capitalist class system and perpetuating inequality in society. Page 6 VI. POVERTY IN THE UNITED STATES A. B. C. Although some people living in poverty are unemployed, many hardworking people with full-time jobs also live in poverty. The official poverty line is based on what is considered to be the minimum amount of money required for living at a subsistence level. Sociologists distinguish between absolute poverty – when people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life – and relative poverty – when people may be able to afford basic necessities but still are unable to maintain an average standard of living. Who Are the Poor? 1. Age: Children are more likely to be poor than older persons; older women are twice as likely to be poor as older men; older African Americans and Latinos/as are much more likely to live below the poverty line than are non-Latino/a whites. 2. Gender: About two-thirds of all adults living poverty are women; this problem is described as the feminization of poverty – the trend in which women are disproportionately represented among individuals living in poverty. 3. Race and Ethnicity: White Americans (non-Latinos/as) account for approximately two-thirds of those below the official poverty line; however, a disproportionate percentage of the poverty population is made up of African Americans, Latinos/as, and Native Americans. E. Economic and Structural Sources of Poverty 2. An economic source of poverty is the low wages paid for many jobs: Half of all families living in poverty are headed by someone who is employed, and one third of those family heads work full time. 3. Poverty also is exacerbated by structural problems such as deindustraliztion- millions of U.S. workers have lost jobs as corporations have disinvested here and opened facilities in other countries where “cheap labor” exists job deskilling- a reduction in the proficiency needed to perform a specific job that leads to a corresponding reduction in the wages paid for the job resulting from the introduction of computers and technology F. Solving the Poverty Problem 1. The United States has attempted to solve the poverty problem with social welfare programs; however, the primary beneficiaries have not always been the poor. 2. A lack of consensus exists regarding both the definitions of the problem and the possible solutions for it. 3. A law passed to “end welfare and establish state-level work-fare programs and mandatory time limit on welfare benefits D. Page 7 VII. SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS OF SOCIAL INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES A. Functionalist Explanation of Social Inequality A. According to the Davis-Moore thesis: A. All societies have important tasks that must be accomplished and certain positions that must be filled. Some positions are more important for the survival of society than others. The most important positions must be filled by the most qualified people. The positions that are the most important for society and require scarce talent, extensive training, or both, must be the most highly rewarded. The most highly rewarded positions should be those which are functionally unique (no other position can perform the same function), and those positions upon which others rely for expertise, direction, or financing. B. c. d. e. 2. This thesis assumes that social stratification results in meritocracy – a hierarchy in which all positions are rewarded based on people’s ability and credentials. B. Conflict Explanation of Social Inequality 1. From a conflict perspective, inequality does not serve as a source of motivation for people; powerful individuals and groups use ideology to maintain their favored positions at the expense of others. 2. Laws and informal social norms support inequality in the United States (e.g., legalized segregation and discrimination produce higher levels of economic inequality). VIII. I. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE FUTURE A. According to some social scientists, wealth will become more concentrated at the top of the U.S. class structure; as the rich have grown richer, more people have found themselves among the ranks of the poor. Structural sources of upward mobility are shrinking while the rate of downward mobility has increased; the persistence of economic inequality is related to profound global economic changes. B. Page 8 CHAPTER 8: GLOBAL STRATIFICATION WHAT IS GLOBAL STRATIFICATION? Global stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis. The social and economic gaps between the developed nations and the developing nations of the world are much more pronounced than they are in the United States. APPROACHES TO DEFINING GLOBAL STRATIFICATION One approach to defining global stratification is through the “Three Worlds” approach. First world nations, the rich, industrialized, are countries having primarily capitalistic economies and democratic political systems. Second World nations are those countries having a moderate level of economic development and a moderate standard of living. Third World countries are the poorest countries with little or no industrialization, having lowest standards of living, shortest life expectancy, and highest mortality. Closely linked to the “three worlds” concept is the levels of development approach using terms such as developed nations, developing nations, less developed nations, and underdevelopment. The World Bank classifies nations into three economic categories: low-income economies, middleincome economies, and high-income economies. Using the gross domestic product is now a means of measuring wealth and power on a global basis. The World Bank uses the Gini Coefficient as its measure of income inequality. Using the Human Development Index, the United Nations Development Program has established three new criteria for measuring the level of development in a country: life expectancy, education, and living standards. Overall, the gap between the poorest nations and the middle-income nations has continued to widen. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GLOBAL INEQUALITY Social scientists use three primary theoretical perspectives to examine global inequality: (1) development and modernization theory; (2) dependency theory; and (3) world systems theory. The future prospects of global inequality range from more to less optimistic predictions. As we enter the future, we can enjoy global prosperity only ensuing that other people around the world have the opportunity to survive and thrive in their own surroundings. I. WHAT IS GLOBAL STRATIFICATION? I. Global stratification is the unequal distribution of wealth, power, and prestige on a global basis. Between 1960 and 1990, the gap in global income between the rich and poor countries continued to widen. II. Page 1 III. PROBLEMS IN STUDYING GLOBAL INEQUALITY A. The “Three Worlds” Approach- is used to distinguish among nations on the basis of their level of economic development and the standard of living of citizens. A. First World nations were said to be rich, industrialized nations that had primarily capitalist economic systems and democratic political systems. B. Second World nations were said to be countries with at least a moderate level of economic development and a moderate standard of living. c. Third World nations were the poorest countries, with little or no industrialization and the lowest standard of living, shortest life expectancies, and highest rates of mortality. A. The Levels of Development Approach is the most controversial terminology used to describing world poverty and global stratification. A. Underdevelopment, or underdeveloped nations appeared as concepts using the low levels of gross national product (GNP) or goods and services produced in a country in a given year. B. More recently, the concept of underdevelopment has been dropped in favor of sustainable development as economies are now classified by their levels of income rather than GNP. Page 2 IV. CLASSIFICATION OF ECONOMIES BY INCOME A. Low Income Economies A. According to the World Bank criteria in providing loans for development , low income economies are designated as nations with a GNP per capita of $725 or less, in 1994 dollars. B. About one half of the world’s population live in the fifty-one such low-income economies. These people are mostly non-urban and engage in agricultural pursuits, and are impoverished. Among those most affected by poverty in low income economies are women and children. c. The global feminization of poverty is a term which best describes the plight of women in such societies as they suffer from lack of adequate income, impoverishment, and low levels of political power. B. Middle-income Economies a. According to the World Bank’s criteria, middle-income economies are those with a GNP per capita of more than $725 but less than $8,956 in 1994 dollars. a. About one-third of the world’ population resides in the fifty-seven nations with such economies. Many of these economies suffer from high rates of inflation, a growing gap between the rich and the poor amongst them, low life expectancies, and high number of homeless children. High levels of foreign debt also exist among many of the nations in this category, resulting in out-flow of cash because of indebtedness. b. c. b. While some nations are better off in the middle-income group, nonetheless, there exist high rates of poverty in many countries classified as middle-income economies. C. High-income Economies 1. According to the World Bank’s criteria, high-income economies are those nations with a per capita income of $8,956 or more in 1994 dollars. 1. About twenty-five countries are found in this category of world economies. 2. These countries dominate the world economy and are the most affluent of the nations. 2. Even though some of these countries experience capital flight- the movement of jobs and economic resources from one nation to another; and deindustrialization- the closing of plants and factories because of their obsolescence or the fact that workers in other nations are being hired to do the work more cheaply. Page 3 V. MEASURING GLOBAL WEALTH AND POVERTY A. On a global basis, measuring wealth and poverty has been difficult. But increasingly, the concept of the GNP is being used. GNP is all of the goods and services produced within a country’s economy during a given year. Poverty on global level is used to explain disparity among nations. Thus, understanding poverty involves social judgment. Absolute, Relative, and Subjective Poverty Absolute poverty- defined as a condition in which people do not have the means to secure the most basic necessities of life- would be measured by comparing personal or household income or expenses either the cost of buying a given quantity of goods and services. Relative poverty- exists when people may be able to afford basic necessities but are still unable to maintain an average standard of living- would be measured by comparing one person’s income with the income of others. Subjective poverty- would be measured by comparing the actual income against the income earner’s expectations and perceptions. B. VI. GLOBAL POVERTY AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ISSUES A. Since the 1970s, the United Nations has more actively focused on human development as a crucial factor in fighting poverty. A. The Human Development Index (HDI) established three new criteria- in addition to GNPfor measuring the level of development in a country: A. Life expectancy- Major problems still exit for low-income and middle-income countries. However, overall, life expectancy has continued to increase in the past three decades. Disparities among nations continue to exit. Health- refers to the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and mot merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Many people in low-income countries are far from having adequate health. Education and Literacy- According to the U.N., a literate person is “someone” who can, with understanding, both read and write a short, simple statement on their everyday life”. Adult literacy rates in low-income countries are about half of that in high-income countries. Persistent Gaps in Human Development- Some middle- and low-income countries have made progress in human development. The gap between some richer and middle- or lower-income nations has narrowed significantly for life expectancy, adult literacy, and daily calorie supply. But the overall picture for the world’ poorest people remains dismal. B. c. Page 4 VII. THEORIES OF GLOBAL INEQUALITY A. Social scientists have developed a variety of theories which view the cause and consequences of global inequality somewhat differently: A. Development and Modernization Theory is the perspective that links global inequality to different levels of economic development and suggests that low-income economies can move to middle- and high-income economies by achieving selfsustained economic growth. According to Walt Rostow, all countries move through the following stages: A. Traditional stage- very little social change takes place and people to not think of changing their present circumstances. Take-off stage- a period of economic growth accompanied by a growing belief in individualism, competition, and achievement. Technological maturity- the country improves in technology, reinvests in new industries, and embraces the values and institutions of high-income developed nations. High mass consumption- a high standard of living which encourages consumption B. c. d. b. Critics of modernization theory point out that it tends to be Eurocentric in its analysis of low-income countries. B. Dependency Theory- states that global poverty can at least partially be attributed to the fact that the low-income countries have been exploited by the high-income countries. a. Dependency theory disputes the notion that the development approach that economic growth is the key to meeting important human needs in societies. b. It argues that the poor nations are caught in a cycle of structured dependency on the richer nations. c. Dependency theory has been most often applied to the newly industrialized countries (NICs) and makes a contribution to our understanding of global poverty by pointing out that “underdevelopment” is not necessarily the cause of inequality. It points to exploitation of one country by another as well as exploitation by transnational corporations. Page 5 C. World System Theory- Drawing on Karl Marx’s ideas about global imperialism and capitalist exploitation, Wallerstein and others suggest that what exists under capitalism is a truly global system that is held together by economic ties. a. Core nations- are dominant capitalist centers characterized by high levels of industrialization and urbanization. They possess most of the world’s capital and technology b. Semiperipheral nations- are more developed than peripheral nations but less developed than core nations. They constitute a midpoint between the core and peripheral nations that promotes the stability and legitimacy of the three-tiered world economy. c. Peripheral nations- nations that are dependent on core nations (other than what may be brought in by core nations), and have uneven patterns of urbanization. The wealthy in these nations benefit from the labor of poor workers and from their economic relations with core countries’ capitalists. D. The New International Division of Labor Theory- commodity production is being split into fragments that can be assigned to whichever part of the world can provide the most profitable combination of capital and labor. a. The new international division of labor has changed the patterns of geographic specialization between countries, whereby high-income countries have become dependent on low-income countries for labor. b. The global nature of these activities has been referred to as global commodity chains, a complex pattern of international labor and production processes that result in a finished commodity ready for sale in the marketplace. VIII. GLOBAL INEQUALITY IN THE FUTURE A. In some regions, persistent and growing poverty continues to undermine human development and future possibilities for change. The more optimistic view suggests that modern technology and worldwide economic growth could reduce poverty and increase opportunities. Health and education may continue to improve in lower-income countries, resulting in more advances. B. C. Page 6 CHAPTER 9: RACE AND ETHNICITY Monday, May 25, 2009 2:03 PM WHAT ARE RACE AND ETHNICITY? Issues of race and ethnicity permeate all levels of interaction in the United States. A race is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and eye shape. By contrast, an ethnic group is a collection of people distinguished, by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. Race and ethnicity are ingrained in our consciousness and often form the basis of hierarchical ranking and determine who gets what resources. WHAT ARE MAJORITY AND MINORITY? A majority or dominant group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society. A minority or subordinate group is one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. WHAT ARE PREJUDICE AND DISCRIMINATION? Prejudice is a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about the members of selected racial and ethnic groups. Discrimination refers to actions or practices of dominant group members that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group. Discrimination may be either individual or institutional discrimination- involving day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON RACIAL AND ETHNICAL RELATIONSHIP According to the interactionist contact hypothesis, increased contact between people from divergent groups should lead to favorable attitudes and behavior when a specific set of criteria are met. Two functionalist perspectives (assimilation and ethnic pluralism) focus on how members of subordinate groups become a part of the mainstream. Alternatively, conflict theories analyze economic stratification and access to power in race and ethnic relations: caste and class perspectives, internal colonialism, splitlabor market theory, gendered racism, and racial formation theory. RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS The unique experiences of Native Americans, White Anglo-Saxon Protestants/British Americans, African Americans, White Ethnics, Asian Americans, Latinos/as (Hispanic Americans), and Middle Easterners are discusses, and the increasing racial-ethnic diversity of the United States is examined. Globally, many racial and ethnic groups seek self-determination creating ethnic wars in some areas. In the future, it is hoped that the superpower nations with the aid of the United Nations will suppress ethnic violence. Page 1 I. RACE AND ETHNICITY A. A race is a category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and eye shape. B. An ethnic group is a collection of people distinguished, by others or by themselves, primarily on the basis of cultural or nationality characteristics. C. Social significance of race and ethnicity: Race and ethnicity are bases of hierarchical ranking in society; the dominant group holds power over other (subordinate) ethnic groups. D. Racial classifications in the U.S. census mirror how the meaning of race has continued to change over the past century in the U.S. E. A majority or dominant group is one that is advantaged and has superior resources and rights in a society. A minority or subordinate group is one whose members, because of physical or cultural characteristics, are disadvantaged and subjected to unequal treatment by the dominant group and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination. II. PREJUDICE A. Prejudice is a negative attitude based on faulty generalizations about members of selected racial and ethnic groups. Prejudice is often based on stereotypes. Stereotypes are overgeneralizations about the appearance, behavior, or other characteristics of all members of a category. The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that people who are frustrated in their efforts to achieve a highly desired goal will respond with a pattern of aggression toward a scapegoat – a person or groups that is incapable of offering resistance to the hostility or aggression of others. B. Racism is the belief that some racial or ethnic groups are superior while others are inferior. C. Theories of prejudice include the frustration-aggression hypothesis, social learning theory, and the theory of the authoritarian personality, which is characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking. D. Based on the work of Emory Bogardus, social distance is the extent to which people are willing to interact and establish relationships with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own. Page 2 III. DISCRIMINATION A. Discrimination is defined as actions or practices of dominant group members that have a harmful impact on members of a subordinate group. B. Robert Merton identified four combinations of attitudes and responses: Unprejudiced Persons are not personally prejudiced and do not discriminate non-discriminators against others. Unprejudiced behavior because of peer-group prejudice or economic, political, or discriminators Persons have no personal prejudice but still engage in discriminatory social interests. Prejudiced Persons hold personal prejudices but do not discriminate due to peer non-discriminators pressure, legal demands, or a desire for profits. Prejudiced Persons hold personal prejudices and actively discriminate against discriminators others. C. Discriminatory actions vary in severity from the use of derogatory labels to violence against individuals and groups. 1. Genocide is the deliberate, systematic killing of an entire people or nation. 2. More recently, the term “ethnic cleansing” has been used to define a policy of “cleansing” geographic areas (such as in Bosnia-Herzegovina) by forcing persons of other races or religions to flee or die. D. Discrimination also varies in how it is carried out. 1. Individual discrimination consists of one-on-one acts by members of the dominant roup that harm members of the subordinate group or their property. 2. Institutional discrimination is the day-to-day practices of organizations and institutions that have a harmful impact on members of subordinate groups. Page 3 IV. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON RACE AND ETHNIC RELATIONS Interactionist Perspectives Focus Theory/Hypothesis Explanations The contact between people from divergent groups should lead to favorable attitudes and behavior when a specific set of criteria is met. However, scholars have found that increasing contact may have little or no effect on existing prejudices. Microlevel contacts Between individuals Contact hypothesis Functionalist Perspectives Focus Assimilation Ethnic pluralism Theory/Hypothesis is the process by which members of subordinate racial and ethnic groups become absorbed into the dominant culture. -the coexistence of a variety of distinct racial and ethnic groups within one society. Page 4 Conflict Perspectives Focus Caste perspective Class perspective Internal colonialism Theory/Hypothesis Views racial and ethnic inequality as a permanent feature of U.S. society. Emphasizes the role of the capitalist class in racial exploitation. Occurs when members of a racial or ethnic group are conquered, or colonized, and forcibly placed under the economic and political control of the dominant group. refers to the division of the economy into two areas of employment:  a primary sector composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs, and  a secondary sector comprised of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and frequently hazardous working conditions. refers to the interactive effect of racism and sexism in the exploitation of women of color. The theory of racial formation states that actions of the government substantially define racial and ethnic relations in the United States. Split labor market Gendered racism Racial formation V. RACIAL AND ETHNIC GROUPS IN THE UNITED STATES A. Native Americans 1. Historically, Native Americans experienced the following kinds of treatment in the United States: a. genocide b. forced migration c. forced assimilation 2. Today, about two million Native Americans live in the United States (primarily in the southwest), and about one-third live on reservations. 3. Native Americans are the most disadvantaged racial or ethnic group in the United States in terms of income, employment, housing, nutrition, and health (especially among individuals living on reservations). 4. Native Americans have at times demonstrated their individual skills in sports, but have had less visibility [aarticipating in organized sports. Page 5 A. White Anglo-Saxon Protestants/British Americans 1. Although many English settlers initially were indentured servants or sent here as prisoners, they quickly emerged as the dominant group, creating a core culture to which all other groups were expected to adapt. 2. Like other racial and ethnic groups, British Americans are not all alike; social class and gender affect their life chances and opportunities. 3. Family background, social class, and gender play an important role in the sports participation of WASPS. Due to their generally higher socioeconomic status, WASPs participate more readily in organized sports. B. African Americans 1. Slavery was rationalized by stereotyping African Americans as inferior and childlike; however, some slaves and whites engaged in active resistance that eventually led to the abolition of slavery. 2. Through informal practices in the north and Jim Crow laws in the south, African Americans experienced segregation in housing, employment, education, and all public accommodations. 3. Lynching – a killing carried out by a group of vigilantes seeking revenge for an actual or imagined crime by the victim - was used by whites to intimidate African Americans into staying "in their place." 4. During World Wars I and II, African Americans were a vital source of continued both on and off the job. i. After African Americans began to demand sweeping societal changes in the 1950s, the courts and the federal government slowly outlawed racial segregation. Civil rights legislation attempted to do away with discrimination in education, housing, employment, and health care. ii. 5. Today, African Americans make up about 13 percent of the U.S. population: Many have made significant gains in education, employment, and income in the past three decades; however, other African Americans have not fare so well. The African American unemployment rate remains twice as high as that of whites, and young people in central city areas face a bleak future. Page 6 C. White Ethnics was coined to identify immigrants who came from European countries other than England: Ireland, Poland, Italy, Greece, Germany, Yugoslavia, Russia and other former Soviet republics, and so forth. 1. Some White Ethnic Americans such as the Irish and Italian Americans were subjected to institutionalized discrimination in employment. Some of the Jewish Americans, also, experienced discrimination in the form of anti-Semitism. 2. Sports provided a pathway to assimilation to many White Ethnic Americans. D. Asian Americans 1. Chinese Americans a. The initial wave of Chinese immigration occurred between 1850 and 1880 when Chinese men came to the United States seeking gold in California and jobs constructing the transcontinental railroads. b. Chinese Americans were subjected to extreme prejudice and stereotyping; the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was passed because white workers feared for their jobs. c. In the 1960s, the second and largest wave of Chinese immigration came from Hong Kong and Taiwan. d. Today, one-third of all Chinese Americans were born in the United States; as a group, they have enjoyed considerable upward mobility, but many Chinese Americans live in poverty in Chinatowns. 2. Japanese Americans a. The earliest Japanese immigrants primarily were men who worked on sugar plantations in the Hawaiian Islands in the 1860s; the immigration of Japanese men was curbed in 1908; however, Japanese women were permitted to enter the U.S. for several more years because of the shortage of women. b. Internment: During World War II, when the United States was at war with Japan, nearly 120,000 Japanese Americans were placed in internment camps because they were seen as a security threat; many Japanese Americans lost all that they owned during the interment. c. In spite of the extreme hardship faced as a result of the loss of their businesses and homes during World War II, many Japanese Americans have been very successful. Page 7 3. Korean Americans a. The first wave of Korean immigrants were male workers who arrived in Hawaii between 1903 and 1910; b. The second wave came to the mainland following the Korean War in 1964 (e.g., the wives of servicemen, and Korean children who had lost their parents in the war); and c. The third wave arrived after the Immigration Act of 1965 permitted welleducated professionals to migrate to the U.S. d. Korean Americans have helped each other open small businesses by pooling money through the kye – an association that grants members money on a rotating basis to gain access to more capital. 4. Filipino Americans a. Most of the first Filipino immigrants were men who were employed in agriculture; Following the Immigration Act of 1965, Filipino physicians, nurses, technical workers, and other professionals moved in large numbers to the U.S. mainland. b. Unlike other Asian Americans, most Filipinos have not had the start-up capital necessary to open their own businesses, and workers generally have been employed in the low-wage sector of the dual labor market. 5. Indochinese Americans a. Most Indochinese Americans (including people from Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, and Laos) have come to the U.S. in the past two decades. b. Vietnamese refugees who had the resources to flee at the beginning of the Vietnam War were the first to arrive; Next came Cambodians and lowland Laotians, referred to as "boat people" by the media. c. Today, most Indochinese Americans are foreign born; about half live in western states, especially California. Even though most Indochinese immigrants spoke no English when they arrived in this country, some of their children have done very well in school and have been stereotyped as "brains." Page 8 E. Latinos/as (Hispanic Americans) 1. Mexican Americans or Chicanos/as have experienced disproportionate poverty as a result of internal colonialism. a. More recently, Mexican Americans have been seen as cheap labor at the same time that they have been stereotyped as lazy. b. When anti-immigration sentiments are running high, Mexican Americans often are the objects of discrimination. c. Today, the families of many Mexican Americans have lived in the United States for four or five generations and have made significant contributions in many areas. 2. When Puerto Rico became a possession of the United States in 1917, Puerto Ricans acquired U.S. citizenship and the right to move freely to and from the mainland; while living conditions have improved substantially for some, others have continued to live in poverty in Spanish Harlem and other barrios. 3. Cuban Americans have fared somewhat better than other Latinos; early waves of Cuban immigrants were affluent business and professional people; the second wave of Cuban Americans in the Mariel boatlift of the 1970s fared worse; and more recent arrivals have developed their own ethnic economic enclaves in cities such as Miami. 4. For most of the past 100 years, Latinos have played Major League Baseball. Today, Latinos represent more than 20 % of all major leaguers. F. Middle Easterners 1. Since 1970, many immigrants have arrived in the United States from Middle Eastern countries such as Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Iran, and Jordan. 2. While some are from working class families, the Lebanese, Syrians, and Iranians primarily come from middle class backgrounds. 3. Most Iranian immigrants initially hoped to return to Iran; however, many now have become U.S. citizens and are creating their own ethnic enclaves. Page 9 VI. GLOBAL RACIAL AND ETHNIC INEQUALITY IN THE FUTURE A. Worldwide Racial and Ethnic Struggles 1. The cost of self-determination – the right to choose one’s own way of life- often is the loss of life and property in ethnic warfare (e.g., Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Spain, Romania, Russia, Moldova, Georgia, the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Latin America). 2. However, some analysts predict that the "superpower" nations, including the United States, Great Britain, Japan, and Germany, will suppress ethnic violence with the assistance of the United Nations, which will serve a peacekeeping function by monitoring and enforcing agreements between rival factions. B. Growing Racial and Ethnic Diversity in the United States 1. Racial and ethnic diversity is increasing in the United States: by the year 2000, white Americans comprise of 70 percent of the population, in contrast to 80 percent in 1980; by 2056, the roots of the average U.S. resident will be Africa, Asia, Hispanic countries, the Pacific Islands, or Arabia – not white Europe. 2. Interethnic tensions may ensure between whites and people of color; people may continue to employ sincere fictions- personal beliefs that are a reflection of larger societal mythologies, such as "I" am not a racist"- even when these are inaccurate perceptions. 3. Some analysts believe that there is reason for cautious optimism; throughout US. history, subordinate racial and ethnic groups have struggled to gain the freedom and rights which were previously withheld from them, and movements comprised of both whites and people of color will continue to oppose racism in everyday life, to aim at healing divisions among racial groups, and to teach children about racial tolerance. Page 10 CHAPTER 10: SEX AND GENDER WHAT ARE SEX AND GENDER? It is important to distinguish between sex and gender. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with "femininity" and "masculinity." Gender is socially significant because it leads to differential treatment of men and women. Sexism (like racism) is often used to justify discriminatory treatment. Sexism is linked to patriarchy; a hierarchical system in which cultural, political, and economic structures are male dominated. GENDER STRATIFICATION ON HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE In most hunting and gathering societies, fairly equitable relationships exist because neither sex has the ability to provide all of the food necessary for survival. In horticultural societies, hoe cultivation is compatible with childcare, and a fair degree of gender equality exists because neither sex controls the food supply. In agrarian societies, male dominance is very apparent; tasks require more labor and physical strength, and women are seen as too weak or too tied to child-rearing activities to perform these activities. In industrialized societies, a gap exists between unpaid work performed by women at home and paid work performed by men and women. GENDER AND SOCIALIZATION The key agents of gender socialization are parents, peers, teachers and schools, sports, and the mass media. Gender inequality results from the economic, political, and educational discrimination of women. CONTEMPOARY GENDER INEQUALITY In most workplaces, jobs are either gender segregated or the majority of employees are of the same gender. Gender segregated occupations lead to a disparity, or pay gap, between women’s and men’s earnings. Even when women are employed in the same job as men, on average they do not receive the same, or comparable, pay. Many women have a "second shift" because of their dual responsibilities for paid and unpaid work. PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER INEQUALITY According to functional analysts, husbands perform instrumental tasks of economic support and decision making, and wives assume expressive tasks of providing affection and emotional support for the family. Conflict analysts suggest that the gendered division of labor within families and the workplace result from male control and dominance over women and resources. Although feminist perspectives vary in their analyses of women’s subordination, they all advocate social change to eradicate gender inequality. Page 1 I. SEX AND GENDER A. Sex refers to the biological and anatomical differences between females and males. A. Primary sex characteristics are the genitalia used in the reproductive process. B. Secondary sex characteristics are the physical traits (other than reproductive organs) that identify an individual’s sex. 3. Sex orientation is a preference for emotional-sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both (bisexuality). B. Gender refers to the culturally and socially constructed differences between females and males found in the meanings, beliefs, and practices associated with "femininity" and "masculinity." 1. A microlevel analysis of gender focuses on how individuals learn gender roles and gender identity. 1. Gender roles refer to the attitudes, behavior, and activities that are socially defined as appropriate for each sex and are learned through the socialization process. 2. Gender identity refers to a person’s perception of the self as female or male. 2. A macrolevel analysis of gender examines structural features, external to the individual, which perpetuate gender inequality, including gendered institutions, that are reinforced by a gendered belief system, based on ideas regarding masculine and feminine attributes that are held to be valid in a society. C. Sexism is interwoven with patriarchy. 1. Sexism refers to the subordination of one sex, usually female, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex. 2. Patriarchy refers to a hierarchical system of social organization in which cultural, political, and economic structures are controlled by men. Page 2 II. GENDER STRATIFICATION IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE 1. The earliest known division of labor between women and men is in hunting and gathering societies. 2. In horticultural societies, women make an important contribution to food production because hoe cultivation is compatible with child-care; a fairly high degree of gender equality exists because neither sex controls the food supply. C. In pastoral societies, herding primarily is done by men; women contribute relatively little to subsistence production and thus have relatively low status. D. Gender inequality increases in agrarian societies, as men become more involved in food production. E. In industrial societies in which factory or mechanized production has replaced agriculture, as the major form of economic activity, the status of women tends to decline further. F. Gender division of labor increases the economic and political subordination of women. Gender Stratification in Historical Perspective Hunting & Horticultural Changing from Prior Society Economic Characteristics Control of Surplus ___ Hunting game, gathering roots and berries none Agrarian Industrialized Use of animaldrawn plows and equipment Labor-intensive farming Men own land or herbs Patrilineal Men – to ensure legitimacy of heirs Low Gathering & Pastoral? Invention of steam engine Mechanized production of goods Men own means of production Patrilineal Men – but less so in later stages Low Use of hand tools Planting crops, domestication of animals for food Men begin to control societies Shared – Patrilineal and matrilineal Increasingly by men Decreasing in move to pastoralism Inheritance Control over Procreation Women’s Status none none Relative equality Page 3 III. GENDER AND SOCIALIZATION A. Parents as Agents of Gender Socialization A. From birth, parents act toward children on the basis of gender labels; children’s clothing and toys reflect their parents’ gender expectations. B. Boys are encouraged to engage in gender-appropriate behavior; they are not to show an interest in "girls" activities. B. Peers and Gender Socialization 1. Peers help children learn prevailing gender-role stereotypes, as well as genderappropriate and inappropriate behavior. 2. During adolescence, peers often are stronger and more effective agents of gender socialization than are adults. 3. Among college students, peers play an important role in career choices and the establishment of long term, intimate relationships. C. Teachers and Schools and Gender Socialization 1. From kindergarten through college, schools operate as gendered institutions; teachers provide important messages about gender through both the formal content of classroom assignments and informal interactions with students. 2. Teachers may unintentionally demonstrate gender bias – the showing of favoritism toward one gender over the other – toward male students. D. Sports and Gender Socialization 1. The type of game played differs with the child’s sex: from elementary school through high school, boys play football and other competitive sports while girls are cheerleaders, members of the drill team, and homecoming queens. 2. For many males, sports participation and spectatorship is a training ground for masculinity; for females, sports still is tied to the male gender role, thus making it very difficult for girls and women to receive the full benefits of participating in such activities. Page 4 E. Mass Media and Gender Socialization 1. Gender stereotyping is found in media, ranging from children’s cartoons to adult shows. 2. On television, more male than female roles are shown, and male characters typically are more aggressive, constructive, and direct, while females are deferential toward others or use manipulation to get their way. 3. Advertising also plays an important role in gender socialization. F. Adult Gender Socialization A. Men and women are taught gender-appropriate conduct in schools and the workplace. B. Different gender socialization may occur as people reach their forties and enter "middle age." IV. CONTEMPORARY GENDER INEQUALITY A. Gendered Division of paid work has a major effect on the earnings based on where people are located in the occupational structure. A. Gender-segregated work refers to the concentration of women and men in different occupations, jobs, and places of work. B. Labor market segmentation – the division of jobs into categories with distinct working conditions – results in women having separate and unequal jobs in the secondary sector of the split- or dual-labor market that are lower paying, less prestigious, and have fewer opportunities for advancement. A. Pay Equity (Comparable Worth) indicates that occupational segregation contributes to a pay gap – the disparity between women’s and men’s earnings. It is calculated by dividing women’s earnings by men’s to yield a percentage. Pay equity or Comparable worth is the belief that wages ought to reflect the worth of a job, not the gender or race of the worker. B. Paid Work and Family Equity became separated during the industrial revolution. Although both men and women profess that working couples should share household responsibilities, researchers find that family demands remain mostly women’s responsibility, even among women who hold time-time paid employment. Page 5 V. PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER STRATIFICATION A. Functionalist and neoclassic economic perspectives on the family view the division of family labor as ensuring that important societal tasks will be fulfilled. A. The importance of traditional gender roles are considered significant, not only for the individual, but also for the social and economic order of the society. B. According to the human capital model, individuals vary widely in the amount of education and job training they bring to the labor market. From this perspective, what individuals earn is the result of their own choices and labor market demand for certain kinds of workers at specific points in time. 3. Other neoclassical economic models attribute the wage gap to such factors as: a. the different amounts of energy men and women expend on their work; b. the occupational choices women make (choosing female-dominated occupations so that they can spend more time with their families); c. the crowding of too many women into some occupations (suppressing wages because the supply of workers exceeds demand). i. According to the conflict perspective, the gendered division of labor within families and the workplace results from male control of and dominance over women and resources. a. Although men’s ability to use physical power to control women diminishes in industrial societies, they still remain the head of household, control the property, and hold more power through their predominance in the most highly paid and prestigious occupations and the highest elected offices. b. Conflict theorists in the Marxist tradition assert that gender stratification results from private ownership of the means of production; some men not only gain control over property and the distribution of goods but also gain power over women. Page 6 B. Feminist Perspectives 1. Feminism refers to a belief that women and men are equal and that they should be valued equally and have equal rights. 2. In liberal feminism, gender equality is equated with equality of opportunity. 3. According to radical feminists, male domination causes all forms of human oppression, including racism and classism 4. Socialist feminists suggest that women’s oppression results from their dual roles as paid and unpaid workers in a capitalist economy. In the workplace, women are exploited by capitalism; at home, they are exploited by patriarchy. 5. Black (African American) feminism is based on the belief that women of color experience a different world than other people because of multi-layered oppression based on race/ethnicity, gender, and class. Evaluation of Conflict and Feminist Perspectives suggests that gender stratification is viewed as factors which are external to individuals that contribute to the oppression of white women and people of color. VI. GENDER ISSUES IN THE FUTURE 1. In the past 30 years, women have made significant progress in the labor force; laws have been passed to prohibit sexual discrimination in the workplace and school; women are more visible in education, the workplace, and government. 2. Many men have joined feminist movements not only to raise their consciousness about men’s concerns, but also about the need to eliminate sexism and gender bias. 3. However, U.S. society still remains far from gender equality in many areas of life. Page 7 Assignment 3 Please study Chapters 7 through 10 and answer the following essay questions. After you submit the assignment, you can refer to Review Sheet and study the chapters for TEST 3. You can read the relevant chapter to find the answers. Each of the essay question responses should be at least 100 words. I expect your essay question responses to be correct and relate the course content to real-world applications from your work experience. 1. How many systems of stratification are there on a global basis? What are they? 2. Compare and contrast Karl Marx's theory of social class and Max Weber's theory of social stratification. 3. Identify intergenerational mobility and give an example of upward intergenerational mobility. 4. Describe the "three worlds" approach that is used to classify nations of the world. 5. In relation to measuring global wealth and poverty, distinguish among absolute, relative, and subjective poverty. 6. Differentiate between race and ethnicity and explain their social significance. 7. Describe sociologist Robert Merton's typology of the relationship between prejudice and discrimination. Give an example of unprejudiced discriminators and give an example of prejudiced nondiscriminators. 8. Explain the difference between sex and gender. Describe the process of gender socialization. 9. Define sexism and explain how it is related to patriarchy. 10. Trace gender stratification from a historical and contemporary perspective. KEY TERMS FOR TEST 3 CHAPTER 7 Social stratification Global systems of stratification Slavery, Caste, Class Social mobility Horizontal mobility Vertical mobility Intergenerational mobility Intragenerational mobility The class structure of functionalist model by Gilbert and Kahl Karl Marx’ view of social class Max Weber’s view of social stratification Poverty The feminization of poverty Absolute poverty and relative poverty CHAPTER 8 Global inequality "three worlds approach" Classification Of Economies By Income High income nations, middle income nations, low income nations Absolute poverty, relative poverty, subjective poverty Modernization and development theory Dependency theory Second shift World systems theory (Wallestein) Core nations Semiperipheral nations Peripheral nations CHAPTER 9 Race and ethnic group Social mobility Majority (dominant) group Minority (subordinate) group Prejudice and discrimination Racism Robert Merton’s for combinations of attitudes and responses Individual discrimination| Institutional discrimination Racial and ethnic groups in the United States Functionalist perspective on the gendered division of family labor Conflict perspective on gender stratification feminism CHAPTER 10 Sex and gender Gender inequality in historical perspective Sexual orientation Gender role Sexism and patriarchy Gender and socialization Gender inequality at work and at home