I wanted to share with you a piece of my Fourth of July, as I consider you part of my extended family. As New Jersey State President, Fourth of July represents Hope that I have for our state, our region, and our Future as Phi Theta Kappans in the best region in the country.

I hope that YOUR Fourth of July was as symbolic and meaningful to you as mine was to me. I look forward in meeting you at the 2009 New Jersey State Presidents and Officers Luncheon at Brookdale Community College on July 20. For Directions to Brookdale Community College and/or to RSVP for this event click here.

Below is 18 mins of Live Classic Rock Music from the Fourth of July celebration held at Somers Point Beach in Somers Point New Jersey by Bob Camponella and his band.

In psychoanalytic theory, Freud postulated that the Oedipus/Electra Complex[1] was the most important event of childhood, an event that would have a great affect on a child’s subsequent adult life. Freud believed that the Oedipus/Electra complex was resolved through a process known as ’sex role identification’ (Kagan, Segal, & Haveman, 2004), a significant period in a child’s life when he/she identifies with the same-sex parent and begins to develop his/her own identity. Freud believed the superego resulted from introjections of parental standards and the resolution of the Oedipus/Electra complex (Ewen R. B., 2003). In Psychoanalytic theory, the superego, the third structure of the personality to develop, is made up of two parts; the ego ideal, which rewards appropriate behavior, and the conscience, which contains parental and societal values and attitudes (Bee & Boyd, 2007). Within this Psychoanalytic viewpoint, one could see how paternal absence may result in some form of maladaptive psychological adjustment for a child.

Hetherington (1966) found that children who come to be paternally deprived by the age of five suffer more psychological and interpersonal difficulties than children who become paternally deprived after the age of five. According to Freud, this age coincides with ‘the phallic stage’ of the psychosexual stages of development, described as a time when the father enters a child’s psychic life. In addition, during this phase the child resolves emotional conflicts that results from the Oedipus/Electra complex and begins to identify with the same sex parent (Kagan et al). The research literature subsequently shows that paternal absence significantly affects male and female children differently.

Research that examined the relationship between paternal involvement in adolescence and psychological distress in adulthood suggests that a father absence contributes to lower academic attainment and well-being for children in single mother families (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003).  The research confirms that children in single mother families, compared to father-present families, not only tend to have lower scores on measures of academic achievement and cognitive ability but have a higher risk of delinquency and deviant behavior, and were more likely to drop out of school and give birth outside of marriage.

Adelson’s research (1980, as cited in Beaty, 1995) confirms Hetherington’s findings, but also points out the adverse effects of paternal absence on the sex role development of boys. Furthermore, Beaty (1995) clearly demonstrates that a father’s absence not only negatively affected the sex role identification of boys, but impaired their adjustment to peer groups as well. Although Santrock (1975) pointed out the similarities between social learning theory and other theoretical points of view on the importance of a father’s responsibility in teaching morality to his son, he failed to prove a father absence has a negative impact on the moral development of boys in his own 1975 experiment. Furthermore, Santrock maintained that the burden placed on the mother as a result of the departure of the father affected the quality of the relationship between a mother and her children. Accordingly, a father’s absence not only deprives a child of the father but also in some way diminishes the relationship between mother and child.

Current research by Bemporad (1995) found that a father’s departure and/or absence might result in the male child’s rejection of the male role model and his incapability or reluctance to switch from the maternal figure to the paternal figure. Which may affect a boy’s identification process (Butcher, Mineka, & Hooley, 2007)  resulting in sexual identity confusion, alternative sexual preferences, and an inability to establish meaningful heterosexual relationships with a woman.

According to Freud, a child’s strongest need is a father’s love and protection (Ewen E. , 1996). Therefore, a child who has experienced the loss of a parent or whose need for nurturance and love has not been fulfilled develops a vulnerability for depression (Butcher et al). According to Freud, the infant will grow up feeling unworthy of love, will have low self-esteem, and will be prone to depression when faced with real or perceived losses (Ewen R. B., 2003). Nielsen (2007) found that fathers generally have as much, or more, impact than mothers on many aspects of their daughter’s lives. Nielsen goes on to say that a father’s absence has negative influence and negative impact on the daughters ability to trust, and relate well to the males in her life. Nielsen goes on to say that, father-absent daughters are usually less confident, less self-reliant, and less successful in school and in their careers than father-present daughters. Furthermore, research shows that girls who have good relationships with their fathers are less likely to develop eating disorders (Nielsen, 2007).

According to Beck’s Cognitive Model of Depression, certain types of early experiences can lead to the dysfunctional beliefs that leave a person vulnerable to depression later in life if certain stressors are activated (Butcher et al). Beck (1967) found that these dysfunctional beliefs, or ‘deprossogenic schemas’, are counterproductive to a child’s healthy psychological adjustment and are thought to develop during childhood and adolescence as a function of one’s negative experience with one’s parents and significant others. Furthermore, Beck states that they serve as the underlying vuneralbitly to the development of depression.

In her research, Flouri (2007) looked at the role of father involvement and the relationship between fathering and adolescent psychological adjustment. She found that a father’s involvement was negatively related to children’s hyperactivity and total difficulties and positively related to children’s prosocial behavior. Additionally, Flouri’s study showed that father involvement has a correlation to specific aspects of child adjustment. Adolescent children in father-absent families are much more likely to develop behavioral problems than adolescent children in father-present families (Flouri).

In conclusion, the result of the metamorphosis of the traditional family unit due to social-cultural influence was catalytic in the formation of many alternative family structures of which paternal absence is the most common. The review of research literature acknowledges the need for more research on paternal involvement, and confirms the importance of father involvement. According to the Freudian point of view, the father-daughter relationship is crucial to the development of femininity and the preservation of womanhood and is instrumental to the development of the daughter’s ability to trust and relate well to the men in her life. For children who experience the father’s absence prior to the age of five, the overall effects of paternal loss seem to be profound and long-term, an age that is describes as a time when the father enters a child’s psychic life. The research literature reviewed clearly supports Freud’s view that father absence affects the gender role development of boys and may be the cause of depression and other maladjustment. Paternal absence has a far-reaching, lifelong impact on both boy and girls psychological well-being in different yet profound ways.

References

Beaty, L. A. (1995). Effects of paternal absence on male adolescents’ peer relations and self-image. Adolescence , 30 (120), 873-879.

Beck, A. T. (1967). Depression: Causes and Treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.

Bee, H., & Boyd, D. (2007). The Developing Child (11 ed.). New York, New York, USA: Pearson.

Bemporad, J. R. (1995). Long-term analytic treatment of depression. In E. E. Beckman, & W. R. Leber (Eds.), Handbook of Depression (2 ed., pp. 404-424). New York: Guilford.

Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., & Hooley, J. M. (2007). Abnormal Psychology (13 ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Ewen, E. (1996). Oedipus Complex. In R. J. Corsini, & A. J. Auerbach (Eds.), Concise Encyclopedia of Psychology (2 ed., Vol. 4, pp. 629-630). New York, NJ , USA: Wiley & Sons Inc.

Ewen, R. B. (2003). An Introduction to the Theories of Personality (6 ed.). Mahwah, New Jersey, USA: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Flouri, E. (2007). Fathering and adolescents’ psychological adjustment: the role of fathers’ involvment, residence and biology status. Child: care, health and development , 34 (2), 152-161.

Flouri, E., & Buchanan, A. (2003). The role of father involvment in children’s later mental health. Journal of Adolescence , 26, 63-78.

Hetherington, E. M. (1966). Effects of paternal absence on sex-typed behaviors in Negro and white preadolescent males. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology , 4 (1), 87-91.

Kagan, J., Segal, J., & Haveman, E. (2004). Kagan & Segal’s Psychology: An Introduction (9 ed.). Belmont, California, USA: Wadsworth.

Nielsen, L. (2007). College daughters’ relationships with their fathers: A 15 year. College Student Journal , 41 (1), 112-121.

Santrock, J. W. (1975). Father Absence, Perceived Maternal Behavior, and Moral Development in Boys. Child Development , 46 (3), 753-757.

• Drug abuse disorders may involve physiological dependence on substances, such as opiates –particularly heroine — or barbitutes;
  
• However, psychological dependence may also occur with any of the drugs that are commonly used today–for example marijuana.

SR 2 – Etiology

• A number of factors are considered important in the etiology of substance disorders.
  
• Some substances, such as alcohol and opium, stimulate brain centers that produce euphoria-which then becomes a desired goal.

SR 3 – Genetic Factors

• It is widely believed that genetic factors play some role in causing susceptibility through such biological avenues as metabolic rates and sensitivity to alcohol.
  

SR 4 – Psychological Factors

• Psychological factors — such as psychological vulnerability, stress, and the desire for tension reduction–
  
• And disturbed marital relationships are also seen as important etiologic elements in substance-abuse disorders.

SR5 -

• Although the existence of an “alcoholic personality type” has been disavowed by most theorist, a variety of personality factors play an important role I the development and expression of addictive disorders.
  

SR6 – Sociocultural Factors

• Sociocultural factors such as attitudes toward alcohol may predispose individuals to alcoholism.
  

SR7 – Possible Causal Factors

• Possible causal factors in drug abuse include the influence of peer groups, the existence of a so called “drug culture”, and the availability of drugs as tension reducers or pain relievers.
  

SR8-

• Some recent research has explored a possible physiological basis for drug abuse.
  
• The discovery of endorphins, morphine-like substances produced by the body, has led to speculation that a biochemical basis of drug addiction may exist.

SR9 – The Pleasure Pathway

• The so-called “pleasure pathway”–the mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway (MCLP)–has come under a great deal of study in recent years as the possible potential anatomic site underlying the addictions.
  

SR10 – Treatment

• The treatment of individuals who abuse alcohol or drugs is generally difficult and often fails.
  
• The abuse may reflect a long history of psychological difficulties; interpersonal and marital distress may be involved; and financial and legal problems may be present.

SR11 -

• In addition, all such problems must be dealt with by an individual who may deny that the problem exist and who may not be motivated to work on them.
  

SR12 -

• Several approaches to the treatment of chronic alcohol or drug abuse have been developed–
  
• For example, medication to deal with withdrawal symptoms and withdrawal delirium, and dietary evaluation and treatment for malnutrition.

SR13 – Therapies

• Psychological therapies such as group therapy and behavioral interventions may be effective with some alcohol-or drug-abusing individuals.
  
• Another source of help for alcohol abusers is AA;
• However, the extent of successful outcomes with this program has not been sufficiently studied.

SR14 -

• Most treatment programs require abstinence;
  
• However, over the past 20 years, research has suggested that some alcohol abusers can learn to control their drinking while continuing to drink socially.
• The controversy surrounding controlled drinking continues

Key Words

addictive behavior (P. 412) Behavior based on the pathological need for a substance or activity; it may involve the abuse of substances such as nicotine, or cocaine, or gambling.

alcoholism (p, 413) dependence on alcohol that seriously interferes with life adjustment.

amphetamine (P. 438) drug that produces a psychologically stimulating and energizing effect.

barbiturates (P. 439) synthetic drugs that act as depressants to calm the individual and induce sleep.

caffeine (p, 431) A drug of dependence found in many commonly available drinks and foods.

cocaine (p, 437) stimulating and pain-reducing psychoactive drug.

Ecstasy (p, 442) a human manufactured drug that is take orally and acts as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen. The drug effects include feeling of mental stimulation, emotional warmth, enhanced sensory perception, and increased physical energy. The adverse health effects of the drug can be extreme and include symptoms of nausea, chills, sweating, teeth clenching, muscle cramping, and blurred vision.

endorphins (P. 436) opiates produced in the brain and throughout the body that function like neurotransmitters to dampen pain sensations. They also play a role in the body’s building up tolerance to certain drugs.

flashback (P. 442) involuntary recurrence of perceptual distortions or hallucinations weeks or months after taking a drug; in post-traumatic stress disorder, a dissociative state in which the person briefly relives the traumatic experience.

hallucinogens (P. 441) drugs known to induce hallucinations; often referred to as psychedelics.

hashish (p, 443) strongest drug derived from the hemp plant; a relative of marijuana that is usually smoked.

heroin (P. 433) powerful psychoactive drug, chemically derived from morphine, that relieves pain but is even more intense and addictive than morphine.

LSD (P. 441) (lysergic acid diethylamide). The most potent of the hallucinogens. It is odorless, colorless, and tasteless, and an amount smaller than a grain of salt can produce intoxications.

marijuana (P. 443) mild hallucinogenic drug derived from the hemp plant, often smoked in cigarettes called reefers of joints.

mescaline (P. 442) Hallucinogenic drug derived from the peyote cactus.

mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway (MCLP) (p.419) Center of psychoactive drug activation in the brain. This area is involved in the release of dopamine and in mediating the rewarding properties of drugs.

methadone (P. 436) Synthetic narcotic related to heroin; used in treatment of heroin addiction because it satisfies the craving for heroin without producing serious psychological impairment.

morphine (P. 433) Addictive drug derived from opium that can serve as a powerful sedative and pain reliever.

nicotine (P. 431) Addictive akaloid that is the chief active ingredient in tobacco and a drug of dependence.)

opium (P. 433) Narcotic drug that leads to physiological dependence and the development of tolerance; derivatives are morphine, heroin, and codeine.

pathological gambling (P. 445) Progressive disorder characterized by loss of control over gambling, preoccupation with gambling and obtaining money for gambling, and irrational gambling behavior in spite of adverse consequences.

psilocybin (P. 442) Hallucinogenic drug derived from a variety of mushrooms.

psychoactive drugs (P. 412) Drugs that affect mental functioning.

substance abuse (P. 412) Maladaptive pattern of substance use manifested by recurrent and significant adverse consequences related to the use of the substance.

substance dependence (p, 412) Severe form of substance use disorder involving physiological dependence on the substance, tolerance, withdrawal, and compulsive drug taking.

tolerance (P. 412) Need for increased amounts of a substance to achieve the desired effects.

toxicity (P. 412) Poisonous nature of a substance.

withdrawal symptoms (P. 412) Physical symptoms such as sweating, tremors, and tension that accompany abstinence from some drugs.

• Emotional factors influence the development of many physical disorders and play an important role in the course of disease.
  
• DSM-IV-TR recognizes this with the category called “Psychological Factors Affecting a General Medical Condition“

SR 2 -

• To recognize that psychological problems can also result from medical problems, DMS-IV-TR also has a category called, “Mental Disorders Due to a General Medical Condition“
  

SR 3 -

• The field of behavioral medicine grew out of the general recognition that physical and emotional wellbeing are intimately interrelated.
  
• It seeks to extend our conception of disease beyond the traditional medical focus on physical breakdown of organs and organ systems.

SR 4 -

• When we are stressed, the autonomic nervous system responds in a variety of ways.
  
• One consequence of stress is increased production of cortisol.
• High levels of this stress hormone may be beneficial in the short term but problematic over the longer term.

SR 5 -

• In the immune system, specialized white blood cells called B-cells and T-cells respond to antigens such as viruses and bacteria.
  
• They are assisted by natural killer cells, granulocytes, and macrophages.

SR 6 -

• Psychoneuroimmunology is an exciting and developing field.
  
• It is concerned with the interactions between the nervous system and the immune system.

SR 7 -

• Cytokines are chemicals messengers that allow the brain and the immune system to communicate with each other.
  
• Some cytokines respond to a challenge to the immune system by causing an inflammatory response.
• Other cytokines, called anti-inflammatory cytokines, dampen the response that the immune systems makes when it is challenged.

SR 8 -

• Negative emotional states, such as being under a lot of stress or having low social support, can impair the functioning of the immune system and the cardiovascular system, Leaving a person more vulnerable to disease and infection.
  
• Damaging habits and lifestyles such as smoking and obesity also enhance risk for physical disease.

SR 9 -

• Many physical illnesses seem to be linked to chronic negative emotions such as anger, anxiety, and depression.
  
• Hostility is well established as an independent risk factor for CHD.
• The same is true of depression.

SR 10 -

• Positive psychology is an emerging field that is concerned with human traits and resources associated with health and well-being.
  
• One factor that is associated with greater well-being is having an optimistic outlook on life.

SR 11 -

• Factors such as genetic vulnerabilities, excessive autonomic reactivity, and possible organ weaknesses remain important in our understanding of the causes of physical diseases.
  
• They must be a part of treatment considerations whenever physical disease occurs, regardless of strong evidence of psychological contributions to its development.

SR 12 -

• A common factor in much psychosocially mediate physical disease is inadequacy in an individuals coping resources for managing stressful life circumstances.
  
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy, in particular, shows much promise in alleviating this type of health-endangering problem

Key Terms

allostatic load (P. 347) the biological cost of adapting to stress. Under conditions of high stress our allostatic load is high. When we are calm, our allostatic load is low and our bodies are not experiencing any of the physiological consequences of stress (e.g., racing heart, high levels of cortisol).

antigens (P. 348) a foreign body (e.g., a virus or bacteria) or an internal threat (e.g., tumor) that can trigger an immune response

B-cell (P. 348) A type of white blood cell produced in the bone marrow, that is (along with T-cells) very important in the immune system. B-cells produce specific antibodies in response to specific antigens.

behavioral medicine (P. 344) broad interdisciplinary approach to the treatment of physical disorders thought to have psychological factors as major aspects in their causation and/or maintenance.

biofeedback (P. 366) treatment technique in which a person is taught to influence his or her own physiological processes that were formerly thought to be involuntary.

chronic fatigue syndrome (US) (p.367) a debilitating illness characterized by disabling fatigue that last 6 months or more and occurs with other symptoms.

cortisol (P. 347) human stress hormone released by the cortex of the adrenal glands.

cytokines (P. 348) Small protein molecules that enable the brain and the immune system to communicated with each other. Cytokines can augment or enhance an immune system response or cause immunosuppression, depending on the specific cytokine that is released.

essential hypertension (P. 355) high blood pressure with no specific known physical cause.

health psychology (P. 344) subspecialty within behavioral medicine that deals with psychology’s contributions to diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychological components of physical dysfunction.

HPA axis (P. 347) the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis is a hormonal feedback system that becomes activated by stress and results in the production of cortisol.

hypertension (P. 355) high blood pressure, defined as a persisting systolic blood pressure of 140 or more and a diastolic blood pressure of 90 or greater.

immunosuppression (P. 350) a down-regulation or dampening of the immune system. This can be short or long term and can be triggered by injury, stress, illness, and other factors.

observational study (P. 363)

placebo effect (p, 354) positive effect experience ager an inactive treatment is administered in such a way that a person thinks he or she is receiving an active treatment.

positive psychology (P. 353) a new field that focuses on human traits (e.g., optimisms) and resources that are potentially important for health and well-being.

psychoneuroimmunology (p, 350) study of the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system and the influence of these factors on behavior.

psychophysiological (psychosomatic) disorders (p.346) physical disorders in which psychological factors are believed to play a major causative role

T-cell (P. 348) a type of white blood cell that, when activated, can recognize specific antigens. T-cells play an important role in the immune system.

Type A behavior pattern (P. 356) excessive competitive drive even when it is unnecessary, impatience or time urgency, and hostility.

Type D personality (P. 357) Type D (for distressed) personality is characterized by high levels of negative emotions and social anxiety. Research suggest that Type D personality is linked to heart attacks.

SR 1 – Personality Disorders

• Personality disorders appear to be inflexible and distorted behavioral patterns and traits that result in maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to other people and the environment.
  

SR 2 – Diagnosis

• Even with structured interviews, the reliability of diagnosing personality disorders typically is less than ideal.
  
• Most researchers agree that a dimensional approach for assessing personality disorders would be preferable.

SR 3 – Cause?

• It is difficult to determine the causes of personality disorders because most people with one personality disorder also have at least one more and because most studies to date are retrospective.
  

SR 4 – Three general Clusters of personality disorder have been described in the DSM.

• Cluster A: includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders seem odd or eccentric.
  • Little is known about the causes of paranoid and schizoid disorders,
  • But genetic and other biological factors are implicated in schizotypal personality disorder.
• Cluster B: includes histrionic, narcissistic, antisocial,
  and borderline personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders share a tendency to be dramatic, emotional, and erratic.
  • Little is known about the causes of histrionic and narcissistic disorders.
  • Certain biological and psychosocial causal factors have been identified as increasing the likelihood of developing borderline personality disorder in those at risk because of high levels of impulsivity and effective instability.
• Cluster C: includes avoidant, dependant, obsessive-compulsive,
  personality disorders;
  
  • Individuals with these disorders show fearfulness or tension, as in anxiety-based disorders.
  • Children with an inhibited temperament may be at heightened risk for avoidant personality disorder,
  • And individuals high on neuroticism and agreeableness, with authoritarian and overprotective parents, may be at heightened risk for dependent personality disorder.

SR 5 – Treatment

• There is relatively little research on treatments for most personality disorders.
  
  • Treatment of the Cluster C disorders seems most promising,
  • And treatment of Cluster A disorders is most difficult.
  • A new form of behavior therapy (dialectical behavior therapy) shows considerable promise for treating borderline personality disorder, which is in Cluster B.

SR 6 – Psychopathy

• A person with psychopathy is callous and unethical,
  
• Without loyalty or close relationships, but often with superficial charm and intelligence.
• Individuals with a diagnosis of ASPD ( and often psychopathy) engage in an antisocial, impulsive, and socially deviant lifestyle.
  • Genetic and temperamental, learning, and adverse environmental factors seem to be important in causing psychopathy and ASPD.
  • Psychopaths also show deficiencies in fear and anxiety as well as more general emotional deficits.
  • Treatment of individuals with psychopathy is difficult, partly because they rarely see any need to change and tend to blame other people for their problems.

KeyTerms

antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) (P. 384) Disorder characterized by continual violation of and disregard for the rights of others through deceitful, aggressive or antisocial behavior, typically without remorse or loyalty to anyone.

avoidant personality disorder (P. 388) Extreme social inhibition and introversion, hypersensitivity to criticism and rejection, limited social relationships, and low self-esteem.

borderline personality disorder (BPD) (P. 385)Impulsivity and instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and moods.

dependent personality disorder (P. 390) Extreme dependence on others, particularly the need to be taken care of, leading to clinging and submissive behavior.

depressive personality disorder (P. 392) Provisional category of personality disorder in DSM-IV- TR that involves a pattern of depressive cognitions and behaviors that begins by early adulthood and is pervasive in nature.

histrionic personality disorder (P. 380) Excessive attention seeking and emotional instability, and self-dramatization.

narcissistic personality disorder (P. 382) Exaggerated sense of self importance, preoccupation with being admired, and lack of empathy for the feelings of others.

obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) (P. 391) Perfectionism and excessive concern with maintaining order, control, and adherence to rules.

paranoid personality disorder (P. 376) Pervasive suspiciousness and distrust of others.

passive-aggressive personality disorder (P. 392) Provisional category of personality disorder in DSM-IV- TR characterized by a pattern of passive resistance to demands in social or work situations, which may take such forms as simple resistance to performing routine tasks, being sullen or argumentative, or alternating

between defiance and submission.

personality disorder (P.373) Gradual development of inflexible and distorted personality and behavioral patterns that result in persistently maladaptive ways of perceiving, thinking about, and relating to the world.

psychopathy (P. 395) A condition involving the features of antisocial personality disorder and such traits as lack of empathy, inflated and arrogant self-appraisal, and glib and superficial charm.

schizoid personality disorder (P. 377) Inability to form social relationships or express feelings and lack of interest in doing so.

schizotypal personality disorder (P. 379) Excessive introversion, pervasive social interpersonal deficits, cognitive and perceptual distortions, and eccentricities in communication and behavior.

• DSM-IV-TR recognizes three different eating disorders: anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and eating disorder NOS (not otherwise specified).
  
• A forth type of eating disorder, binge eating disorder, is listed in the Appendix and is not yet part of the formal DSM.

SR 2 – Anorexia Nervous and Bulimia Nervous

• Both anorexia nervous and bulimia nervosa are characterized by an intense fear of becoming fat and a drive for thinness.
  
• Patients with anorexia nervosa are seriously underweight.
• This is not true of patients with bulimia nervosa.

SR 3 – Prevalence

• Eating disorders are more common in women than in men.
  
• They can develop at any age, although they typically begin in adolescence.

SR 4 -

• Anorexia nervosa has a lifetime prevalence of around 0.5 percent.
  
• Bulimia nervosa is more common, with a lifetime prevalence of 1 to 3 percent.
• Many more people suffer from less severe forms of disturbed eating patterns.

SR 5 – Genetic Factors

• Genetic factors play a role in eating disorders, although exactly how important genes are in the development of pathological eating patterns is still unclear.
  

SR 6 -

• The neurotransmitter serotonin has been implicated in eating disorders.
  
• Serotonin is also involved in mood disorders, which are highly comorbid with eating disorders.

SR 7- Sociocultural Influences

• Sociocultural influences are important on the develpoment of eating disorders.
  
• Our society places great value on being thin.
• Western values about thinness may be spreading, which may help explain why eating disorders are now found throughout the world.

SR 9 – Risk Factors

• Individual risk factors such as internalizing the thin ideal, body dissatisfaction, dieting, negative affect, and perfectionism have been implicated in the development of eating disorders.
  

SR 10 – Treatment Approaches

• Anorexia nervosa is very difficult to treat.
  
• Treatment is long term
• And many patients resist getting well.
• Current treatment approaches include tube feeding (in severe cases), family therapy, and Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CBT.
• Medication are also used.

SR 11 -

• The treatment of choice for bulimia nervosa is Cognitive Behavioral Therapy CBT.
  
• CBT is also helpful for binge eating disorder.

SR 12 – Obesity

• Obesity is defined as having a Body Mass Index BMI of 30 or above.
  
• Being obese is associated with many medical problems and with increased risk of death from heart attack.
• Obesity is not viewed as an eating disorder or as a psychiatric condition.

SR 13 -

• A tendency to being thin or heavy may be inherited.
  
• However, unhealthy lifestyles are the most important cause of obesity.

SR 14 -

• People are more likely to be obese if they are older, are female, or are of low socioeconomic status (SES).
  
• Being a member of an ethnic group is also a risk factor for obesity.

SR 15 -

• Obesity is a chronic problem.
  
• Medications help patients to lose small amounts of weight; drastic weight loss usually requires bariatric surgery.

SR 16 -

• Because obesity tends to be a lifelong problem, and treating obesity is so difficult, there is now a focus on trying to prevent people from becoming obese in the first place.
  
• Implementing many approaches that have been recommended will require major changes in social policy.

anorexia nervosa (P. 313) Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming “fat;’ coupled with refusal to maintain adequate nutrition and with severe loss of body weight.

binge-eating disorder (BED) (P. 319) Distinct from nonpurging bulimia nervosa, whereby binging is not accompanied by inappropriate compensatory behavior to limit weight gain.

body mass index (BMI) (P. 333) An estimation of total body fat calculated as body weight in kilograms divided by height (in meters) squared.

bulimia nervosa (P. 315) Frequent occurrence of binge-eating episodes, accompanied by a sense of loss of control of overeating and recurrent inappropriate behavior such as purging or excessive exercise to prevent weight gain.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) (P. 332) Therapy based on altering dysfunctional thoughts and cognitive distortions.

eating disorder (P. 312) Disorders of food ingestion, regurgitation, or attitude that affect health and well-being, such as anorexia, bulimia, or binge-eating

eating disorder not otherwise specified (EDNOS) (P. 319) A diagnostic category reserved for disorders of eating that do not meet criteria for any other specific eating disorder.

grehlin (P. 335) Grehlin is a hormone that is produced by the stomach. It stimulates appetite.

leptin (P. 335) Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells that acts to reduce food intake.

negative affect (P. 329) The experience of an emotional state characterized by negative emotions. Such negative emotions might include anger, anxiety, irritability, and sadness.

obesity (P. 333) The condition of having elevated fat masses in the body. Obesity is defined as having a body mass index (BMI) of 30 or higher.

perfectionism (P. 329) The need to get things exactly right. A personality trait that may increase risk for the development of eating disorders, perhaps because perfectionistic people may be more likely to idealize thinness.

purge (P. 314) Purging refers to the removal of food from the body by such means as self-induced vomiting or misuse of laxatives, diuretics, and enemas.

serotonin (P. 324) A neurotransmitter from the indolamine class that is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan. Also referred to as S-HT (S-hydroxytryptamine), this neurotransmitter is thought to be involved in a wide range of psychopathological conditions.

• Somatoform disorders are those in which psychological problems are manifested in physical disorders (or complaints of physical disorders) that often mimic medical conditions but for which no evidence of corresponding organic pathology can be found.
  
  • In hypochondriasis, an anxious preoccupation with having a disease is based on misinterpretations of bodily signs or symptoms.
  • Medical reassurance does not help.
  • Somatization disorder is characterized by many different complaints of physical ailments, in four symptom categories, over at least several years.
  • The symptoms need not actually have existed as long as they were complained about.
  • Pain Disorder is characterized by pain severe enough to disrupt life but in the absence of enough medical pathology to explain its presence.
  • Conversion disorder involves patterns of symptoms or deficits affecting sensory or voluntary motor functions, leading one to think there is a medical or neurological condition, even though medical examination reveals no physical basis for the symptoms.
  • Body dysmorphic disorder involves obsessive preoccupation with some perceived flaw or flaws in one’s own appearance.
  • Compulsive checking behaviors (such as mirror checking) and avoidance of social activities are also common.

SR 2 – Dissociative Disorders Defined

• Dissociative disorders occur when the process that normally regulate awareness and the multi-channel capacities of the mind apparently become disorganized, leading to various anomalies of consciousness and personal identity.
  
  • Depersonalization Disorder occurs in people who expereince persistenc and recurrent episodes of derealization (losing one;s sense of reality of the outside world) and depersonalization (losing one’s sense of oneself and one’s own reality).
  • Dissociative Amnesia involves an inability to recall previously stored information that cannot be accounted for by ordinary forgetting and seems to be a common initial reaction to highly stressful circumstances.
  • The memory loss is primarily for episodic or autobiographical memory.
  • In Dissociative Fugue, a person not only goes into an amnesic state but also leaves his or her home surroundings and becomes confused about his or her identity, sometimes assuming a new one.
  • In Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), the person manifest at least two or more distinct identities that alternate in some way in taking control of behavior.
  • Alter identities may differ in many ways from the host identity.
  • There are many controversies about DID, including wehter it is real or faked; how it develops; whether memories of childhood abuse are real; and, if the memories are real, whether the abuse played a causal role.

alter identities (P. 299) In a person with dissociative identity disorder, personalities other than the host personality.

body dysmorphic disorder (BDD) (p.290) Obsession with some perceived flaw or flaws in one’s appearance.

conversion disorder (P. 286) Pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction or loss of control appear without any underlying organic pathology; originally called hysteria.

depersonalization (P. 295) Loss of sense of personal identity, often with a feeling of being something or someone else.

depersonalization disorder (P. 295) Dissociative disorder in which there is a loss of the sense of self.

derealization (P. 295) Experience in which the external world is perceived as distorted and lacking a stable and palpable existence.

dissociation (P. 280) The human mind’s capacity to mediate complex mental activity in channels split off from or independent of conscious awareness.

dissociative amnesia (P. 297) Psychogenically caused memory failure

dissociative disorders (P. 280) Conditions involving a disruption in an individual’s sense of personal identity.

dissociative fugue (P. 297) A dissociative amnesic state in which the person is not only amnesic for some or all aspects of his or her past but also departs from home surroundings.

dissociative identity disorder (DID) (p.298)

Condition in which a person

manifests at least two or more distinct identities or personality states that alternate in some way in taking control of behavior. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

factitious disorder (P. 290) Feigning of symptoms to maintain the personal benefits that a sick role may provide, including the attention and concern of medical personnel and/or family members.

factitious disorder by proxy (p.291) A variant of factitious disorder in which a person induces medical or psychological symptoms in another person who is under his or her care (usually a child).

host identity (P. 299)

The identity in dissociative identity disorder which is most frequently encountered and carries the person’s real name. This is not usually the original identity and it may or may not be the best adjusted identity.

hypochondriasis (P. 281) Preoccupation, based on misinterpretations of bodily symptoms, with the fear that one has a serious disease.

hysteria (P. 287) Older term used for conversion disorders; involves the appearance of symptoms of organic illness in the absence of any related organic pathology.

malingering (P. 290) Consciously faking illness or symptoms of disability to achieve some specific nonmedical objective.

pain disorder (P. 285) Experience of pain of sufficient duration and severity to cause significant life disruption in the absence of medical pathology that would explain it.

primary gain (P. 287) In psychodynamic theory it is the goal achieved by symptoms of conversion disorder by keeping internal intrapsychic conflicts out of awareness. In contemporary terms it is the goal achieved by symptoms of conversion disorder by allowing the person to escape or avoid stressful situations.

secondary gain (P. 287) External circumstances that tend to reinforce the maintenance of disability

soma (P. 280) Greek word for body. Somatoform disorders involve complaints of bodily symptoms or defects suggesting the presence of

medical problems but for which no organic basis can be found that satisfactorily explains the symptoms.

somatization disorder (P. 283) Multiple complaints, over a long period beginning before age 30, of physical ailments that are inadequately explained by independent findings of physical illness or injury and that lead to medical treatment or to significant life impairment.

somatoform disorders (P. 280) Conditions involving physical complaints or disabilities that occur without any evidence of physical pathology to account for them.

SR 1 – Mood Disorders

• Mood disorders are this in which extreme variations in mood – either low or high – are the predominant feature.
  
• Although some variations in mood are normal, for some people the extremity of moods in either direction becomes seriously maladaptive, even to the extent of suicide.

SR 2 – Unipolar Mood Disorders

• Most people with mood disorders have some form of Unipolar depression–dysthymia or major depression.
  
• Such individuals experience a range of affective, cognitive, motivational and biological symptoms including persistent sadness, negative thoughts about the self and the future, lack of energy or initiative, too much or too little sleep, and gaining or losing weight.
  • Among biological causal factors for unipolor disorder, there is evidence of a moderate genetic contribution to the vulnerability for major depression, but probably not for dysthymia.
  • Moreover, major depression are clearly associated with multiple interacting disturbances in neurochemical, neuroendorine, and neurophysiological systems.
  • Disruptions in circadian and seasonal rhythms are also prominent features of depression.
  • Among psychosocial theories of the causes of unipolor depression are Beck’s cognitive theory and the reformulated helplessness and hopelessness theories, which are formulate as diathesis-stress models.
  • The diathesis is cognitive in nature (e.g., dysfunctional beliefs and pessimistic attributional style, respectively),
  • And stressful life events are often important in determining when those diatheses actually lead to depression.
  • Personality variables such as neuroticism may also serve as diatheses for depression.
  • Psychodynamic and interpersonal theories of unipolar depression emphasize the importance of early experiences especially early losses and the quality of the parent-child relationship) as setting up a predisposition for depression.

SR 3 – Bipolar Disorders

• In the bipolar disorders (cyclothymia and Bipolar I and II disorders), the person experiences episodes of both depression and hypomania or mania.
  
• During manic or hypo manic episodes, the symptoms are essentially the opposite of those experienced during a depressive episode.
  • Biological causal factors probably play an even more prominent role for bipolar disorders than for unipolor disorders.
  • The genetic contribution to bipolar disorder is among the strongest of such contributions to the major psychiatric disorders.
  • Neurochemical imbalances, abnormalities of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, and disturbances in biological rhythms all play a role in bipolar disorder.
  • Stressful life events may be involved in precipitating manic or depressive episodes, but it is unlikely that they cause the disorder.

SR 4 – Treatments

• Biologically based treatments such as medications or electroconvulsive therapy are often used in the treatment of the more severe major disorders.
  
• Increasingly, however, psychological treatments are also being used to good affect in many cases of these more severe disorders, as well as in the milder forms of mood disorder.
• Considerable evidence suggest that recurrent depression is best treated by specialized forms of psychotherapy or by maintenance for prolonged periods on medications.

SR 5 – Suicide

• Suicide is a constant danger with depressive syndromes of any type or severity.
  
• Accordingly, an assessment of suicide risk is essential in the proper management of depressive disorders.
  • A small minority of suicides appear unavoidable-chiefly those were the person really wants to die and uses a highly lethal method.
  • However, a substantial amount of suicidal behavior is performed as a means of indirect interpersonal communication.
  • Somewhere between these extremes is a large group of people who are ambivalent about killing themselves and who initiate dangerous actions that they may or may not carry to completion, depending on momentary events and impulses.
  • Suicide prevention (or intervention) programs generally consist of crisis intervention in the form of suicide hotline.
  • Although these programs undoubtedly avert fatal suicide attempts in some cases, the long-term efficacy of treatment aimed at preventing suicide in those at high risk is much less clear at the present time.

Key terms

attributions (P. 246) Process of assigning causes to things that happen.

Bipolar I disorder (P. 254) a form of bipolar disorder in which a persons experiences both manic (or mixed) episodes and major depressive episodes.

bipolar disorder with a seasonal pattern (P. 255) Bipolar disorder with recurrences in particular seasons of the year.

Bipolar II disorder (P. 255) A form of bipolar disorder in which the person experiences both hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes.

chronic major depressive disorder (p.234) A disorder in which a major depressive episode does not remit over a two year period.

cyclothymic disorder (P. 253) Mild mood disorder characterized by cyclical periods of hypomanic and depressive symptoms.

depression (P. 226) Emotional state characterized by extraordinary sadness and dejection.

depressogenic schemas (P. 244) Dysfunctional beliefs that are rigid, extreme, and counterproductive and that are thought to leave one susceptible to depression when experiencing stress.

diathesis-stress theories (P. 242) Diathesis-stress model. View of abnormal behavior as the result of stress operating on an individual who has a biological, psychosocial, or Sociocultural predisposition to developing a specific disorder.

double depression (P. 233) This condition is diagnosed when a person with dysthymia has a superimposed major depressive episode.

dysfunctional beliefs (P. 244) Negative beliefs that are rigid, extreme, and counterproductive.

dysthymic disorder (P. 230) Moderately severe mood disorder characterized by a persistently depressed mood most of the day for more days than not for at least 2 years. Additional symptoms may include poor appetite, sleep disturbance, lack of energy, low selfesteem, difficulty concentrating, and feelings of hopelessness.

hypomanic episode (P. 253) A condition lasting at least 4 days in which a person experiences abnormally elevated, expansive or irritable mood. At least 3 out of 7 other designated symptoms similar to those in a manic episode must also be present but to a lesser degree than in mania.

learned helplessness (P. 246) A theory that animals and people exposed to uncontrollable aversive events learn that they have no control over these events and this causes them to behave in a passive and helpless manner when later exposed to potentially controllable events. Later extended to become a theory of depression.

major depressive disorder (P. 231)Moderate to severe mood disorder in which a person experiences only major depressive episodes, but no hypomanic, manic or mixed episodes. Single episode if only one; recurrent episode if more than one.

major depressive episode (P. 227) A mental condition in which a person must be markedly depressed for most of every day for most days for at least 2 weeks. In addition, a total of at least 5 out of 9 designated symptoms must also be present during the same time period.

major depressive episode with atypical features (P. 233) A type of major depressive episode which includes a pattern of symptoms characterized by marked mood reactivity, as well as at least 2 out of 4 other designated symptoms.

major depressive episode with melancholic features (P. 232) A type of major depressive episode which includes marked symptoms of loss of interest or pleasure in almost all activities, plus at least 3 of 6 other designated symptoms.

mania (P. 226) Emotional state characterized by intense and unrealistic feelings of excitement and euphoria.

manic episode (P. 227) A condition in which a person shows markedly elevated, euphoric, or expansive mood, often interrupted by occasional outbursts of intense irritability or even violence that lasts for at least 1 week. In addition at least 3 out of 7 other designated symptoms must also occur.

mixed episode (P. 254) A condition in which a person is characterized by symptoms of both full-blown manic and major depressive episodes for at least 1 week, whether the symptoms are intermixed or alternate rapidly every few days.

mood disorders (P. 226) Disturbances of mood that are intense and persistent enough to be clearly maladaptive.

mood-congruent delusions (P. 233) Delusions or hallucinations that are consistent with a person’s mood.

negative automatic thoughts (P. 244) Thoughts that are just below the surface of awareness and that involve unpleasant pessimistic predictions.

negative cognitive triad (P. 244) Negative thoughts about the self, the world, and the future.

pessimistic attributional style (p.247) Cognitive style involving a tendency to make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative life events.

rapid cycling (P. 256) A pattern of bipolar disorder involving at least four manic or depressive episodes per year.

recurrence (P. 234) A new occurrence of a disorder after a remission of symptom.

relapse (P. 234) Return of the symptoms of a disorder after a fairly short period of time.

seasonal affective disorder (P. 234) Mood disorder involving at least two episodes of depression in the past two years occurring at the same time of year (most commonly fall or winter), with remission also occurring at the same time of year (most commonly spring).

severe major depressive episode with psychotic features (P. 233) Major depression involving loss of contact with reality, often in the form of delusions or hallucinations.

specifiers (P. 232)

suicide (P. 268) Taking one’s own life.

unipolar disorder (P. 226) Mood disorders in which a person experiences only depressive episodes, as opposed to bipolar disorder, in which both manic and depressive episodes occur.

• The anxiety disorders have anxiety or panic or both at their core.
  
• They were initially considered a subset of the neuroses,
• But recent versions of the DSM-III and DSM-IV-TR have largely abandoned this term.

SR 2 – Fear or Panic

• Fear or panic is a basic emotion that involves activation of the fight-or-flight response of the autonomic nervous system.
  

SR 3 – Anxiety

• Anxiety is a more diffuse blend of emotions that include:
  
  • High levels of negative affect,
  • worry about possible threat or danger,
  • and the sense of being unable to predict threat or to control it if it occurs.

SR 4 -

• Anxiety and panic are each associated with a number of distinct anxiety disorder syndromes.
  

SR 5 – Specific Phobias

• With specific phobias, there is an intense and irrational fear of specific objects or situations;
  
• When confronted with a feared object, the phobic person often shows activations of the fight-or-flight response, which is also associated with panic.
  • Many sources of fear and anxiety are believed to be acquire through conditioning or other learning mechanisms.
  • However, some people (because of either temperamental or experimental facts) are more vulnerable than others to acquiring such responses.
  • We seem to have a biologically base preparedness to acquire readily fears of objects or situations that posed a threat to our early ancestors.

SR 6 – Social Phobias

• In social phobias, a person has disabling fears of one or more social situations usually because of fears of negative evaluations by others or of active in an embarrassing or humiliating manner,
  
• in some cases a person with social phobia may actually experience panic attacks in social situations.
  • We seem to have an evolutionary based predisposition to acquire fears of social stimuli signaling dominance and aggression from other humans.
  • People with social phobias are also preoccupied with negative self-evaluative thoughts that tend to interfere with their ability to interact in a socially skillful fashion.

SR 7 – Panic Disorder

• In panic disorder, a person experiences unexpected panic attacks that often create a sense of stark terror, which usually subsides in a matter of minutes.
  
  • Many people who experience panic attacks develop anxious apprehension about experiencing another attack; this apprehension is required for a diagnosis of panic disorder.
  • Many people with panic disorder also develop agoraphobic avoidance of situations in which they fear they might have an attack.
  • The conditioning theory of panic disorder proposes that panic attacks cause the conditioning of anxiety primarily to external cues associated with the attacks, And conditioning of panic itself primarily to interceptive cues associated with the early stages of the attacks.
  • The cognitive theory of panic disorder holds that this condition may develop in people who are prone to making catastrophic misinterpretations of their bodily sensations, a tendency that may be related to preexisting high levels of anxiety sensitivity.
  • Other biological theories of panic disorder emphasize that the disorder may result from the biochemical abnormalities in the brain as well as abnormal activity of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin.
  • Panic attacks may arise primarily from the brain area called the amygdala, although many other areas are also involved.

SR 8 – Generalized Anxiety Disorder

• In Generalized Anxiety Disorder, (GAD) a person has chronic and excessively high levels of worry about a numbers of events or activities and responds to stress with high levels of psychic and muscle tension.
  
  • GAD may occur in people who have had extensive experience with unpredicted and/or uncontrollable life events.
  • People with generalized anxiety seem to have schemas about their inability to cope with strange and dangerous situations that promote worries focused on possible threats.
  • The neurobiological facter most implicated in generalized anxiety is a functional deficient in the neurotransmitter GABA, which is involved in the inhibiting anxiety in stressful situations;
  • The limbic system is the brain area most involved.

SR 9 -

• Thus different neurotransmitters and brain areas are involved in panic attacks and generalized anxiety.
  

SR 10 – Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• In obsessive-compulsive disorder, a person experiences unwanted and intrusive distressing thoughts or images that are usually accompanied by compulsive behaviors performed to neutralize those thoughts or images.
  
• Checking and cleaning rituals are most common.
  • Biological casual factors also seem to be involved in obsessive-compulsive disorder, with evidence coming from genetic studies, studies of brain functioning, and psychopharmacological studies.
  • Once this disorder begins, the anxiety-reducing qualities of the compulsive behaviors may help to maintain the disorder.

SR 11 -

• Once a person has an anxiety disorder, mood-congruent information processing, such as attentional and interpretative biases, seem to help maintain it.
  

SR 12 -

• Many people with anxiety disorders are treated by physicians,
  
• Often with medications designed to allay anxiety or with antidepressant medication that also have anti-anxiety effects.
  • Such treatment focuses on suppressing the symptoms, and some medications have addictive potential.
  • Once the medications are discontinued, relapse rates tend to be high.

SR 13 -

• Behavioral and cognitive therapies have a very good track record with regard to treatment of the anxiety disorders.
  
  • Behavior therapies focus on prolonged exposure to feared situations; with obsessive- compulsive disorder, the rituals also must be prevented following exposure to the feared situations.
  • Cognitive therapies focus on helping clients understand their underlying automatic thoughts, which often involve cognitive distortions such as unrealistic predictions of catastrophes that in reality are very unlikely to occur.
  • Then they learn to change these inner thoughts and beliefs through a process of logical reanalysis known as cognitive restructuring.

Key Terms

agoraphobia (P. 195) fear of being in places or situations where a panic attack may occur, and from which escape would be physically difficult or psychologically embarrassing, or in which immediate help would be unavailable in the event that some mishap occurred.

amygdala (P. 199) a collection of nuclei that are almond-shaped which lie in front of the hippocampus in the limbic system of the brain. It is involved in regulation of emotion and is critically involved in the emotion of fear.

anxiety (P. 181) a general feeling of apprehension about possible danger.

anxiety disorders (P. 180) an unrealistic, irrational fear or anxiety of disabling intensity. DSM-IV-TR recognizes seven types of anxiety disorders: phobic disorders (specific or social), panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

anxiety sensitivity (P. 201) a personality trait involving a high level of belief that certain bodily symptoms may have harmful consequences.

blood-injection-injury phobia (P. 185) Persistent and disproportionate fear of the sight of blood or injury, or the possibility of having an injection. Afflicted persons are likely to experience a drop in blood pressure and sometimes faint.

compulsions (P. 211)overt repetitive behaviors (such as hand washing or checking) or more covert mental acts (such as counting, praying, saying certain words silently, or ordering) that a person feels driven to perform in response to an obsession.

fear (P. 181) A basic emotion that involves the activation of the “fight-or-flight” response of the sympathetic nervous system.

generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) (p.205) chronic excessive worry about a number of event s or activities, with no specific threat present, accompanied by at least three of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance.

interoceptive fears (P. 205) fear of various internal bodily sensations.

neuroses (P. 180)

neurotic behavior (P. 180) anxiety driven, exaggerated use of avoidance behaviors and defense mechanisms.

obsessions (P. 211) Persistent and recurrent intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses that a person experiences as disturbing and inappropriate but has difficulty suppressing.

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) (P. 211) Anxiety disorder characterized by the persistent intrusion of unwanted and intrusive thoughts or distressing images; these are usually accompanied by compulsive behaviors designed to neutralize the obsessive thoughts or images or to prevent some dreaded event or situation.

panic (P. 181) A basic emotion that involves activation of the “fight-orflight” response of the sympathetic nervous system and that is often characterized by an overwhelming sense of fear or terror.

panic disorder (P. 194) Occurrence of repeated unexpected panic attacks, often accompanied by intense anxiety about having another one.

panic provocation agent (P. 198) A variety of biological challenge procedures that provoke panic attacks at higher rates in people with panic disorder than in people without panic disorder.

phobia (P. 183) A variety of biological challenge procedures that provoke panic attacks at higher rates in people with panic disorder than in people without panic disorder.

social phobia (P. 190) Fear of situations in which a person might be exposed to the scrutiny of others and fear of acting in a humiliating or embarrassing way.

specific phobia (P. 183) Persistent or disproportionate fears of various objects, places, or situations, such as fears of situations (airplanes or elevators), other species (snakes, spiders), or aspects of the environment (high places, water).

• Many factors influence a person’s response to stressful situations.
  
• The impact of stress depends not only on its severity but also on the person’s preexisting vulnerabilities.

SR 2 – Conflict Situations

• A person’s response to conflict situations may be viewed differently, depending on whether the conflicts are approach-avoidance, double-approach, or double avoidance.
  
  • Approach-avoidance conflicts involve strong tendencies to approach and to avoid the same goal.
    Mary has been offered an appealing new job in another department of the company in which she is employed. The job is one that she has had her eye on for several years and includes a substantial pay raise and better benefits. Unfortunately, her ex-husband, with whom she has been having great difficulty, also works in that department. She becomes very upset when she has to deal with him and is concerned that the work atmosphere would be unbearable.

  • Double-approach conflicts involve choosing between two or more desirable goals.
    Although the experience may cause more eustress (positive stress) than distress (negative stress), the stress is still real and the choice difficult. In either case, the person gives up something. Charles G. is faced with a decision that many would envy but that is giving him a lot of sleepless nights. He has been admitted into two graduate programs that have almost equal appeal. One is a program at a highly prestigious university whose graduates tend to get the best positions. The other school is also highly respected (though not as much as the first (school) and has exactly the type of specialization he has wanted, with an outstanding faculty. Choosing one, of course, means turning down the other. He has been vacillating between the choices, sometimes changing his decision every 5 minutes.
  • Double-avoidance conflicts are those in which the choices are between undesirable alternatives.
    Neither choice will bring satisfaction, so the task is to decide which course of action will be least disagreeable-that is, the least stressful. Jenny’s mother sent her an airline ticket to enable her to attend an “important” family outing the likes of which Jenny has grown to despise. She is considering a course of action that she finds very distasteful-lying to her mother about being so busy that she cannot attend. She knows that her mother will be very punitive if she fails to go, but the family gatherings have become very stressful.

SR 3 – Types of Responses to Stress

• A wide variety of psychosocial stressors exist, and a person can respond to them in different ways.
  
• For instance, a person may react with task-orientated or defense-orientated responses.
  • Task-orientated response: making changes in one’s self, one’s surroundings, or both, depending ton the situation.
  • Defense-orientated responses: Behavior directed primarily at protecting the self from hurt and disorganization rather that at resolving the situation.

SR 4 – DSM-IV-TR

• The DSM-IV-TR classifies people’s problems in response to stressful situations under two general categories: adjustment disorders and post-traumatic stress disorder (which included with the anxiety disorders).
  
  • Adjustment disorder: a disorder in which a person’s response to a common stressor is maladaptive and occurs within 3 months of the stressor.
    • Maladaptive (abnormal) behavior: Behavior that is detrimental to the well being of an individual and/or group.
    • Stressor: Adjustive demands that require coping behavior on the part of an individual or group.
  • Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): disorders that occurs following an extreme traumatic event, in which a person reexperiences the event, avoids reminders of the trauma, and exhibits persistent increased arousal.

SR 5 – Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Several relatively common stressors (prolonged unemployment, military combat, imprisonment, being held hostage, forced relocation, or torture) may be categorized as post-traumatic stress disorder.
  

SR 6 -

• PTSD can involve a variety of symptoms including intrusive thoughts and repetitive nightmares about the event,
  
• Intense anxiety, avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma, and increased arousal manifested as chronic tension, irritability, insomnia, impaired concentration and memory, and depression.

SR 7 -

• If the symptoms begin 6 months or more after the traumatic event, the diagnosis is delayed post-traumatic stress disorder.
  

SR 8 – Factors

• Many factors contribute to a breakdown under excessive stress, including:
  
  • the intensity or harshness of the stress situation,
  • the length of the traumatic event,
  • the person’s biological makeup and personality adjustment before the stressful situation,
  • and the ways in which the person manages problems once the stress full situation is over.

SR 8 -

• In many cases the symptoms recede as the stress diminishes, especially if the person is given supportive psychotherapy.
  
• In extreme cases, however, there may be residual damage or the disorder may be of the delayed variety, not actually occurring until sometime after the trauma.

SR 9 – Approaches to treatment

• Several approaches to treating the symptoms of PTSD are in use today:
  
  • Short-term crisis therapy involving face-to-face discussions,
  • Debriefing sessions with victims of disaster,
  • Direct-exposure therapy for those whose PTSD symptoms persist,
  • Telephone hotlines, and
  • Psychotropic medications to relieve symptoms of PTSD

Key Terms

Anxiety: A general feeling of apprehension about possible danger.

Stress: Effects created within an organism by the application of a stressor.

Stressor: Adjustive demands that require coping behavior on the part of an individual or group.

acute stress disorder (P. 158) disorder that occurs within 4 weeks after a traumatic event and lasts for a minimum of 2 days and a maximum of 4 weeks.

adjustment disorder (P. 154) a disorder in which a person’s response to a common stressor is maladaptive and occurs within 3 months of the stressor.

coping strategies (P. 144) efforts to deal with stress.

crisis (P. 147) stressful situations that approaches or exceeds the adaptive capacities of an individual or group.

crisis intervention (P. 147) provisions of psychological help to an individual or group in times of severe and special stress.

debriefing sessions (P. 172) Psychological debriefing is a brief, directive treatment method that is used in helping people who have undergone a traumatic situation. This approach is often a good first step for helping people process their reaction to traumatic events. Debriefing sessions are usally conducted with small groups of trauma victims shortly after the incident for the purpose of helping them dealing with the emotional residuals of the event.

defense-oriented response (P. 150) Behavior directed primarily at protecting the self from hurt and disorganization rather that at resolving the situation.

disaster syndrome (P. 158) reactions of many victims of major catastrophes during the traumatic experience and the initial and long-lasting reactions after it.

distress (P. 144) negative stress, associated with pain, anxiety, or sorrow.

eustress (P. 144) positive stress

general adaptation syndrome (p.151) A model that helps explain the course of a person’s biological deterioration under excessive stress; consistent of three stages (alarm reaction, the stage of resistance, and exhaustions).

personality or psychological decompensation (P. 151) Inability to adapt to sustain or severe stressors.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (p.157) disorders that occurs following an extreme traumatic event, in which a person reexperiences the event, avoids reminders of the trauma, and exhibits persistent increased arousal.

psychoneuroimmunology (P. 153) study of the interactions between the immune system and the nervous system and the influence of these factors on behavior.

stress (P. 144) Effects created within an organism by the application of a stressor.

stress-inoculation training (P. 171) preventive strategy that prepares people to tolerate an anticipated threat by changing the things they say to themselves before the crisis

stress tolerance (P. 148) A person’s ability to withstand stress without becoming seriously impaired.

stressors (P. 144) Adjustive demands that require coping behavior on the part of an individual or group.

task-oriented response (P. 150) making changes in one’s self, one’s surroundings, or both, depending ton the situation.

• Clinical assessment is one of the most important and complex responsibilities of mental health professionals.
  
• The extents to which a person’s problems are understood and appropriately treated depends largely on the adequacy of the psychological assessment.

SR 2 -

• The goals of psychological assessment include identifying and describing the individual’s symptoms; determining the chronicity and severity of the problems; evaluating the potential causal factors in the person’s background; and exploring the individual’s personal resources that might be an asset in his or her treatment program.
  

SR 3 -

• Because many psychological problems have physical components, either as underlying causal factors or as symptom patterns, it is often important to include a medical examination in the psychological assessment.
  

SR 4 – Neurological tests

• In cases where organic brain damage is suspected, it is important to have neurological test
  
• Such as an EEG, or a CAT, PET, or MRI scan, to help determine the site and extent or organic brain disorder.

SR 5 – Neuropsychological test

• It is often important for someone with suspected organic brain damage to take a battery of neuropsychological test to determine whether or in what manner the underlying brain disorder is affecting his or her mental and behavioral capabilities.
  

SR 6 – Psychosocial Assessment Methods

• Psychosocial assessment methods are techniques for gathering psychological information relevant to clinical decisions about patients.
  

SR 7 -

• The most widely used and most flexible psychosocial assessment methods are the clinical interview and behavior observation.
  
• These methods provide a wealth of clinical information

SR 8 – Psychological Test

• Psychological test include standardized stimuli for collecting behavior samples that can be compared with other individuals behavior via test norms.
  

SR 9 -

• Two different personality-testing approaches have been developed:
  
• (1) projective tests, such as the Rorschach, in which unstructured stimuli are presented to a subject, who then “projects” meaning or structure onto the stimulus, thereby revealing “hidden” motives, feelings, and so on; and
• (2) objective test, or personality inventories, in which a subject is required to read and respond to itemized statements or questions.

SR 10 -

• Objectively scored personality test, such as the MMPI-2, and MMPI-A, provide a cost effective means of collecting a great deal of personality information rapidly.
  

SR 11 -

• Possibly the most dramatic recent innovations in clinical assessment involves the widespread use of computers in the administration, scoring, and interpretations of psychological test.
  
• It is now possible to obtain immediate interpretation of psychological test results, either through a direct computer interactive approach or through a modem to a computer network that interprets tests.

SR 12 -

• The formal definition of mental disorders, as offered in the fourth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), has certain problems that limit its clarity (i.e. what exactly are “dysfunctions”?).
  

SR 13 -

• There are problems with the category type of classifications systems adopted in DSM-IV-TR. Notably, the categories do not always result in within-class homogeneity or between-class discrimination.
  
• This can lead to high levels of comorbidity among disorders.
• Several possible solutions to this problem include dimensionalizing the phenomena of mental disorders and adopting a protypal approach.

SR 14 -

• For all of its problems, however, knowledge of the DSM-IV-TR is essential to serious study in the field of abnormal behavior.
  

Key Terms

actuarial procedures (127)

acute (137)

chronic (137)

comorbidity (133)

computerized axial tomography (CAT scan) (111)

dysrhythmia (111)

electroencephalogram (EEG)(Po 111)

episodic (Po 137)

functional MRI (fMRI) (Po 112)

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)(Po 111)

mild (Po 137)

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Po 122)

moderate (Po 137)

neuropsychological assessment (Po 113)

objective tests (Po 122)

positron emission tomography (PET scan) (Po 112)

presenting problem (Po 108)

projective tests (Po 119)

rating scales (Po 116)

recurrent (Po 137)

reliability (Po 132)

role-playing (Po 116)

Rorschach Test (Po 119)

self-monitoring (Po 116)

sentence completion test (Po 122)

severe (Po 137)

signs (Po 134)

symptoms (Po 134)

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) (Po 121)

validity (132)

Article Summary 1

1. What is the main point the author is making?
   

   The author’s main point was to study the different aspects of a father’s presence or absence on a male child’s moral development. Santrock was testing a hypothesis: that father absence has a negative impact on the moral development of boys. The importance of a father’s responsibilities in teaching morality to his son is consistent, albeit wide-ranging, with social learning theory and other theoretical points of view. The author tested 120 boys using several behavioral and moral affect measures, and moral judgment items. At the conclusion of his study, Santrock found there were no differences in the moral development of father-absent and father-present adolescent boys.
   

2. What are the Research Methods?
   

   Santrock used the experimental method and a questionnaire. He took a sample of 120 fifth and sixth grade subjects from a rural-urban school system in West Virginia. A questionnaire was used to gather information about the boys from their teachers. A sample of Sixty boys were chosen based on theses questionnaires from father-absent homes and the other sixty were chosen from father-present homes.
   

3. Textbook connection to the research (Specific Chapter and Page Number)
   

   Chapter 11, Relationships with Parents pg.303, Attachment Theory: Concepts and Terminology pp. 304-306, Father-child Bonds pg. 305, Parent Child Relationships in Adolescence, pp.309-310.
   

4. Your own Response.
   

   I think that this study is way outdated (1975), it did not go far enough to exclude maternal effect on these boys, a mother can teach her son morality just as much as a father can. In addition, a lot of the data collect was self-reported information. How can we verify that these boys were telling the truth or not? Hey, if someone asked me about how affectionate or angry my mother was to me, I would maybe exaggerate on one question and lie about another. Especially a boy whose father is absent, and the only parent left is his mother, the boy is going to be loyal to his mother. I think that a father’s role, especially in a boy’s life, is critical to not only his moral development, but to the establishment of his identity.
   

5. Attached copy of article.
   

See Attached
Father Absence, Perceived Maternal Behavior, And Moral Development in Boys

• The brain develops in spurts.
  
• Several short spurts occur In the first years, followed by longer periods of growth at about ages 4, 6, 10, 13, and 17.
• In most parts of the brain, dendritic and synaptic development reaches its first peak between 12 and 24 months, after which there is a “pruning” of synapses.
• Periods of synaptic growth followed by pruning of redundant pathways continue to occur thorough out childhood and adolescence.
• Myelination of nerve fibers also occurs rapidly in the early years but continues throughout childhood and adolescence.
• Brain structures that are critical to memory and other forms of complex information processing become myelinated later in childhood.
• Significant changes in brain lateralization happen in early childhood.
• Handedness is weakly related to brain lateralization, but the association between the two is poorly understood at the present time.

Bones, Muscles, and Motor Skills

• Changes in height and weight are rapid during the first year and then level off to a steady pace until adolescence, when a sharp growth spurt occurs.
  
• Bones increases in number in some joints (e.g. the wrist) but decrease in quantity in others (e.g. the skull).
• Bone hardening, or ossification, contributes to development of motor skills.
• Muscle tissue increases primarily in density and length of fibers, with a much larger increase at adolescence for boys than for girls.
• Fat cells are added in the early years and then again rapidly in adolescence, in this case more for girls than for boys.
• Children of 6 or 7 have confident use of most gross motor skills, although there are refinements still to come;
• Fine motor skills needed for many school tasks are not fully developed until sometime in the elementary school years.

The Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

• The physical changes of adolescence are triggered by a complex set of hormonal changes, beginning at about age 8. Very large increases in gonadotrophic hormones, which in turn trigger increased production of estrogen and testosterone, are central to the process.
  
• In girls, sexual maturity is achieved in a set of changes beginning as early as age 8 or 9.
• Menarche occurs relatively late in the sequence.
• Boys achieve sexual maturity later, with the growth spurt occurring a year or more after the start of genital changes.
• Variations in the rate of pubertal development have some psychological effects.
• In general, children whose physical development is markedly earlier or later than they expect or desire show more negative effects than do those whose development is “on time.”

Sexual Behavior in Adolescence

• Sexual activity among teens has increased in recent decades in the US, where roughly half of all High School students are sexually active and 1 in 10 teenaged girls becomes pregnant each year.
  
• Compared to teens who delay sexual activity until leaving high school, teens who begin sexual activity earlier are more likely to come from poorer families or from families in which sexual activity is condoned, to use alcohol, and to have been abused.
• Adolescents in the United States suffer from a variety of sexually transmitted diseases.
• Most adults support sex education programs to combat the spread of STDs, but there is no consensus regarding the effectiveness of various approaches.
• Long-term consequences for girls who bear children during adolescence are negative on average, although a significant minority of such girls are able to overcome their early disadvantages.
• About 1% of adolescent boys and approximately 0.4% of girls define themselves as homosexual.
• research suggests that both heredity and environment contribute to the development of sexual orientation.

Health and Wellness

• Like infants, older children benefit from regular medical check-ups.
  
• Many immunizations are required for initial and continued school enrollment.
• In addition, parents’ conversations with health care professionals may lead to discovery of previously unknown problems.
• Acute illness are a normal part of children’s early lives, and accidents are fairly common.
• Children of all ages need regular check-ups and immunizations.
• Obesity is a serious health risk in middle childhood.
• Adolescents sometimes believe themselves to be less healthy that they actually are.
• Also, sensation-seeking behaviors (e.g., driving too fast) are significant health risk for this age group.
• Tobacco, alcohol, and drug use are additional risks for some teens.
• Virtually all forms of physical disability, chronic illness, acute illness, and accidents are more frequent among children living in poverty.
• Explanations focus on limited access to health care and on more dangerous home and neighborhood situations among the poor, as well as on the effects of stress on the immune system.
• After early infancy, mortality rates are low among children, with most deaths being due to accidents.
• Among teens, homicide is a significant cause of death, especially for African American males.

KEY TERMS

bone age (p. 101) A measure of physical maturation based on x-ray examination of bones, typically the wrist and hand bones. Two children of the same chronological age many have different bone age because their rates of physical maturation differ.

corpus callosum (p. 97) the structure that connects the right and left hemisphere of the cerebral cortex.

cortex (p. 93) the convoluted gray portion of the brain which governs most complex thought, language, and memory.

endocrine glands (p. 103) Glands (including the adrenals, the thyroid, the pituitary, the testes, and the ovaries) that secrete hormones that govern overall physical growth and sexual maturing.

fontanel (p. 101) One of several “soft spots” in the skull that are present at birth but disappear when the bones of the skull grow together.

gonadotrophic hormones (p. 105) two hormones secredted by the pituitary gland at the beginning of puberty that stimulate the development of glands in the testes and ovaries, which the begin to secrete testosterone or estrogen.

handedness (p. 99) A strong preference for using primarily one hand or the other; it develops between 3 and 5 years of age.

hippocampus (p. 97) A brain structure that is involved in the transfer of information to long term memory.

lateralization (p. 97) the process through which brain functions are divided between the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex.

medulla (p. 93) a portion of the brain that lies immediately above the spinal cord; it is largely developed at birth.

menarche (p. 106) Onset of menstruation.

midbrain (p. 93) A section of the brain lying above the medulla and below the cortex that regulates attention, sleeping, waking, and others automatic functions; its is largely developed at birth.

motor development (p. 102) growth and change in ability to perform both gross motor skills (such as Walking or throwing) and fine motor skills (such as drawing or writing).

myelination (p. 96) the process by which an insulating layer of a substance called myelin is added to neurons.

obesity (p. 115) most often defined as body weight 20% or more above the normal weight for height, or Body Mass Index at the 85th percentile or above.

ossification (p. 101) The process of hardening by which soft tissue becomes bone.

pituitary gland (p. 105) Gland that provides the trigger for release of hormones from other gland

puberty (p. 105) The series of hormonal and physical changes at adolescence that bring about sexual maturity.

relative right-left orientation (p. 98) The ability to identify right and left from multiple perspectives.

reticular formation (p. 96) The part of the brain that regulates attention.

secular trend (p. 107) A pattern of change in some characteristic over several cohorts, such as systematic changes in the average timing of menarche or in average height or weight.

selective attention (p. 96) The ability to focus cognitive activity on the important elements of a problem or situation.

sensation -seeking (p. 118) A strong desire to experience the emotional and physical arousal associated with risky behaviors such as fast driving and unprotected sex.

sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (p. 109) Category of disease spread by sexual contact, including cWamydia, genital warts, syphilis, gonorrhea, and HIV; also called venereal diseases.

spatial cognition (p. 98) The ability to infer rules from and make predictions about the movement of objects in space

spatial perception (p. 98) The ability to identify and act on relationships of objects in space; in most people, this skill is lateralized to the right cerebral hemisphere.

synaptogenesis (p. 94) The process of synapse formation.

• Usually the occurrence of abnormal or maladaptive behavior is considered to be the joint product of a person’s vulnerability (diathesis) to disorder and of certain stressors that challenge his or her coping resources.
  

SR 2 – Types of Causal factors and Protective factors

• In considering the causes of abnormal behavior, it is important to distinguish among necessary, sufficient, and contributory causal factors,
  
• as well as between relatively distal (long ago) causal factors and those that are more proximal (immediate).
• The concept of protective factors is important for understanding why some people with both a diathesis and a stressor may remain resilient and not develop a disorder.
• Both the distal (long ago) and proximal (immediate) causes of mental disorder may involve (1) biological, (2) psychological, and (3) Sociocultural factors.
• These three classes of factors can interact with each other in complicated ways.

SR 3 – Viewpoints

• This chapter discussed Biological, Psychological, Psychosocial and Sociocultural
  viewpoints,
  
• Each of which tends to emphasize the importance of causal factors of a characteristic type.

SR 4 – The Biological Viewpoint

• In examining biologically based vulnerabilities, we must consider genetic
  endowment, biochemical and hormonal
  imbalances,
  temperament, and brain dysfunction and neural
  plasticity.
  

SR 5 -

• Investigations in this area show promise for advancing our knowledge of how mind and body interact to produce maladaptive behavior.
  

SR 6 – The Psychosocial Viewpoint

• The oldest psychosocial viewpoint on abnormal behavior is Freudian psychoanalytic theory. For many years this view was preoccupied with questions about libidinal energies and their containment.
  
• More recently psychodynamic theories have shown a distinctly social and interpersonal thrust under the influence, in part, of object-relations theory
• object-relations theory emphasizes the importance of the quality of very-early (pre-Oedipal) mother-infant relationships for normal development.

The Interpersonal Perspective

• The originators of the
  interpersonal perspective were defectors from the psychoanalytic ranks who took exception to the Freudian emphasis on the internal determinants of motivation and behavior,
  
• And instead emphasized that important aspects of human personality have social or interpersonal origins.
• Psychoanalysis and closely related therapeutic approaches are termed psychodynamic in recognition of their attention to inner, often unconscious forces.

The Behavioral Perspective

• The behavioral perspective focuses on the role of learning in human behavior and attributes maladaptive behavior either to a failure to learn appropriate behaviors or to the learning of maladaptive behaviors.
  

SR 7 – The Cognitive-Behavioral Viewpoint

• The cognitive-behavioral viewpoint attempts to incorporate the complexities of human cognition, and how it can become distorted, into an understanding of the causes of psychopathology.
  

Adherents

• Adherents to the cognitive-behavioral viewpoint attempt to alter maladaptive thinking and improve a person’s abilities to solve problems and to plan.
  

Schemas and self-schemas

• People’s schemas and self-schemas play a central role in the way they process information in how they attribute outcomes to causes, and in their values.
  
• The efficiency, accuracy, and coherence of a person’s schemas and self-schemas appear to provide an important protection against breakdown.

SR 8 -

• Sources of psychosocially determined vulnerability include early social deprivation or severe emotional trauma, inadequate parenting styles, marital discord and divorce, and maladaptive peer relationships.
  

SR 9 – The Sociocultural Viewpoint

• The Sociocultural viewpoint is concerned with the contribution of Sociocultural variables to mental disorder.
  
• Although many serious mental disorders are fairly universal, the form that some disorders take and their prevalence vary among different cultures.
• Low socioeconomic status (SES), unemployment, and being subjected to prejudice and discrimination are associated with greater risk for various disorders.

SR 10 -

• To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of mental disorder, we must draw on a variety of sources including the findings of genetics, biochemistry, psychology, and sociology.
  

SR 11 – The Biopsychosocial Approach

• The Biopsychosocial approach is promising, but in many ways it is merely a descriptive acknowledgement of these complex interactions rather that a clearly articulated theory of how they interact.
  
• It is up to future generations of theorist to devise a general theory of psychopathology, if indeed one is possible.

Key Terms

adoption method (P. 69) Comparison of biological and adoptive relatives with and without a given disorder to assess genetic versus environmental influences.

association studies (P. 71) genetic research strategies comparing frequency of certain genetic markers known to be located on particular chromosomes in people with and without a particular disorder.

attachment theory (P. 79) contemporary psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of early experiences with attachment relationships in laying the foundation for later functioning throughout life.

attributions (P. 85) Process of assigning causes to things that happen.

behavior genetics (P. 69) Field that studies the heritability of mental disorders and other aspects of psychological functioning such as personality and intelligence.

Biopsychosocial viewpoint (P. 63) A viewpoint that acknowledges the interacting roles of biological, psychosocial, and Sociocultural factors in the origins of psychopathology.

castration anxiety (P. 78) As postulated by Freud, the anxiety a young boy experiences when he desires his mother while at the same time fearing that his father may harm him by cutting off his

penis; this anxiety forces the boy to repress his sexual desire for his mother and his hostility toward his father.

chromosomes (P. 66) Chain-like structures within cell nucleus that contain genes.

classical conditioning (P. 81) A basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UR). Afterrepeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR).

cognitive-behavioral perspective (p.84) a theory of abnormal behavior that ciuses on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior.

concordance rate (P. 69) the percentage of twins sharing a disorder or trait.

contributory cause (P. 59) a condition that increases the probability of developing a disorder but that is neither necessary nor sufficient for it to occur.

cortisol (P. 66) human stress hormone released by the cortex of the adrenal glands.

developmental psychopathology (p.62) field of psychology that focuses on determining what is abnormal at any point in the developmental process by comparing and contrasting it with normal and expected changes that occur.

developmental systems approach (P. 73) acknowledgement that genetic activity influences neural activity, which in turn influences behavior, which in turn influences the environment, and that these influences are bidirectional.

diathesis-stress models (P. 60) view of abnormal behavior as the result of stress operations on an individual who has a biological, psychosocial, or Sociocultural predisposition to developing a specific disorder.

discrimination (P. 82) ability to interpret and respond differently to two or more similar stimuli.

ego (P. 76) in psychoanalytic theory, the rational part of the personality that mediates between the demands of the id, constraints of the superego and the realities of the external world.

ego psychology (P. 78) Psychodynamic theory emphasizing the importance of the ego–the “executive branch of the personality”–in organizing normal personality development.

ego-defense mechanisms (P. 76) psychic mechanisms that discharge or soothe anxiety rather than coping directly with an anxiety provoking situation; usually unconscious and reality-distorting. Also called defense mechanisms.

Electra complex (P. 78) excessive emotional attachment (love) of a daughter for her father; the female counterpart of the Oedipus complex

etiology (P. 58) causal pattern of abnormal behavior.

extinction (P. 81) gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when it is no longer reinforced.

family history (or pedigree) Behavior genetic research strategy that examines the incidence of disorder in relatives of an index case to determine whether incidence increases in proportion to the degree of the hereditary relationship.

generalization (P. 82) tendency of a response that has been conditioned to one stimulus to be elicited by other, similar stimuli.

genes (P. 66) long molecules of DNA that are present at various locations on chromosomes and that are for the transmission of hereditary traits.

genotype (P. 68) a person’s total genetic endowment.

genotype-environment correlation(p.68) Genotypic vulnerability that can shape a child’s environmental experiences.

genotype-environment interaction (p.68) Differential sensitivity or susceptibility to their environments by people who have different genotypes.

hormones (P. 66) chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands that regulate development of and activity in various parts of the body.

hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal-cortical axis (P. 66) Brain-endocrine system involved in responding to stress in which the hypothalamus and pituitary send messages to the adrenal gland which releases a stress hormone that feeds back on the hypothalamus.

id (P. 76) In psychoanalytic theory, the reservoir of instinctual drivesand the first structure to appear in infancy.

instrumental (or operant) conditioning (P. 82) Reinforcement of a subject for making a correct response that leads either to receipt of something rewarding or to escape from something unpleasant.

interpersonal perspective (P. 79) Approach to understanding abnormal behavior that views much of psychopathology as rooted in the unfortunate tendencies we develop while dealing with our interpersonal environments; it thus focuses on our relationships, past and present, with other people.

Intrapsychic conflicts (P. 76) Inner mental struggles resulting from the interplay of the id, ego, and superego when the three subsystems are striving for different goals.

libido (P. 76) In psychoanalytic theory, a term used to describe the instinctual drives of the id; the basic constructive energy of life, primarily sexual in nature.

linkage analysis (P. 71) Genetic research strategy in which occurrence of a disorder in an extended family is compared with that of a genetic marker for a physical characteristic or biological processthat is known to be located on a particular chromosome.

necessary cause (P. 58) A condition that must exist for a disorder to occur.

neurotransmitters (P. 64) Chemical substances that are released into a synapse by the presynaptic neuron and which transmit nerve impulses from one neuron to another.

object-relations theory (P. 78) In psychoanalytic theory, this viewpoint focuses on an infant or young child’s interactions with “objects” (that is, real or imagined people), as well as how they make symbolic representations of important people in their lives.

observational learning (P. 83) Learning through observation alone without directly experiencing an unconditioned stimulus (for classical conditioning) or a reinforcement (for instrumental conditioning) .

Oedipus complex (P. 78) Desire for sexual relations with a parent of opposite sex; specifically, the desire of a boy for his mother, with his father a hated rival.

phenotype (P. 68) The observed structural and functional characteristics of a person that result from interaction between the genotype and the environment.

pituitary gland (P. 66) Endocrine gland associated with many regulatory functions.

pleasure principle (P. 76) Demand that an instinctual need be immediately gratified, regardless

primary process thinking (P. 76) Gratification of id demands by means of imagery or fantasy without the ability to undertake the realistic actions needed to meet those instinctual demands.

protective factors (P. 60) Influences that modify a person’s response to an environmental stressor, making it less likely that the person will experience the adverse effects of the stressor.

psychosexual stages of development (P. 76) According to Freudian theory, there are five stages of psychosexual development, each characterized by a dominant mode of achieving sexual pleasure:the oral stage, the anal stage, the phallic stage, the latency stage, and the genital stage.

reality principle (P. 76) Awareness of the demands of the environment and adjustment of behavior to meet these demands.

reinforcement (P. 82) The process of rewarding desired responses.

resilience (P. 61) The ability to adapt successfully to even very difficult circumstances.

schema (P. 84) An underlying representation of knowledge that guides current processing of information and often leads to distortions in attention, memory, and comprehension.

secondary process thinking (P. 76) Reality-oriented rational processes of the ego for dealing with the external world and the exercise of control over id demands.

self-schema (P. 84) Our views of what we are, what we might become, and what is important to us.

spontaneous recovery (P. 81) The return of a learned response at some time after extinction has occurred.

sufficient cause (P. 59) A condition that guarantees the occurrence of a disorder

superego (P. 76) Conscience; ethical or moral dimensions (attitudes) of personality.

synapse (P. 64) Site of communication from the axon of one neuron to the dendrites or cell body of another neuron-a tiny filled space between neurons.

temperament (P. 71) Pattern of emotional and arousal responses and characteristic ways of self-regulation that are considered to be primarily hereditary or constitutional.

twin method (P. 69) The use of identical and non-identical twins to study genetic influences on abnormal behavior

Biopsychosocial viewpoint (P. 63) A viewpoint that acknowledges the interacting roles of biological, psychosocial, and Sociocultural factors in the origins of psychopathology.

cognitive-behavioral perspective (p.84) a theory of abnormal behavior that causes on how thoughts and information processing can become distorted and lead to maladaptive emotions and behavior.

Biological viewpoint. Approach to mental disorders emphasizingbiological causation.

11. Behavior Disorders of Childhood
Almost all parents worry whether or not their child’s behavior is normal. This program visits families of youngsters with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and autism. In addition, experts in child development and psychology discuss how to differentiate abnormal behavior from developmental stages.

10. Organic Mental Disorders
A teenager must relearn all the basic skills following a head injury. After years of alcohol abuse, a man loses his short-term memory. A woman sees her husband struggle against the ravages of Alzheimer’s disease. Science and technology’s role in treating these debilitating disorders is also examined in this program.

9. The Schizophrenias
In emotionally moving interviews, this program visits people who suffer from the hallucinations, paranoia, and psychological disarray of these disabling illnesses. In addition to examining symptoms and treatments, the program helps debunk some of the myths associated with the disorder and shows its human side and the strength of those who fight to overcome it.

7. Sexual Disorders
A man exhibits himself in public. A woman feels guilty about not desiring sex. An otherwise happy couple finds themselves at odds over sex. These people share their private problems and demonstrate how the assessment and treatment of sexual disorders has advanced in the past 25 years.

8. Mood Disorders
Depression is one of the most common psychological problems. In this program, psychologists and biologists look at the causes and treatment of both depression and bipolar disorder and show the progress that has been made in helping people return to productive and satisfying lives.

Click to play

6. Substance Abuse Disorders
Millions of Americans abuse alcohol, cigarettes, and cocaine. Health professionals know a great deal about these dangerous and costly disorders, including how to treat them. This program examines how the concept of treatment matching is used to help individuals overcome a variety of addictions

Click to play

5. Personality Disorders
One in ten Americans has a personality disorder. Some are mildly annoying; others are exceedingly dangerous. Viewers will meet individuals with narcissistic, anti-social, borderline, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, including a murderer and a group of women who mutilate themselves, and will learn about the challenges involved in both diagnosis and treatment.

4. Psychological Factors and Physical Illness
This program examines the relationship between emotions and health to explore how psychological treatment can improve well-being. It focuses on a teenager with migraine headaches, a dentist trying to decrease his risk for developing heart disease, and a woman with breast cancer, along with those who are treating them.

Click to play

3. The Anxiety Disorders
Even in the best of times, we all experience some anxiety. But millions of Americans suffer from major anxiety disorders. This program examines two of the most common, panic with agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder, and shows how psychologists are making headway in treating them.

2. The Nature of Stress
We see that stress affects many people — from the overworked and out-of-work, to survivors of suicide and homicide, to Vietnam War veterans who continually re-experience the stress of the battlefield. The program explores the long-term effects of stress and what is known about how to reduce them.

Click to play

12. Psychotherapies
This program allows viewers to “sit-in” on five distinctly different kinds of psychotherapy: psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, Gestalt, couples, and group. Theory and practice are intertwined as these patients progress through therapy, sometimes trying alternative models for the same problem.

ISBN-13: 978-0-205-47453-0

I. INTRODUCTION.

1. Basic Issues in the Study of Development.

• Perspectives on Development.
• Theories of Development.
• Finding the Answers: Research Designs and Methods.

II. THE BEGINNINGS OF LIFE.

2. Prenatal Development.

• Conception and Genetics.
• Development from Conception to Birth.
• Problems in Prenatal Development.

3. Birth and Early Infancy.

• Birth.
• Behavior in Early Infancy.
• Health and Wellness in Early Infancy.

III. THE PHYSICAL CHILD.

4. Physical Development.

• The Brain and Nervous System.
• The Endocrine and Reproductive Systems.
• Sexual Behavior in Adolescence.
• Other Body Systems.
• Health and Wellness.

5. Perceptual Development.

• Thinking About Perceptual Development.
• Sensory Skills.
• Perceptual Skills.
• The Object Concept.
• Perception of Social Signals.

IV. THE THINKING CHILD.

6. Cognitive Development I: Structure and Process.

• Piaget’s Basic Ideas.
• Infancy.
• The Preschool Years.
• The School-Aged Child.
• Adolescence.
• Development of Information-Processing Skills.

7. Cognitive Development II: Individual Differences in Cognitive Abilities.

• Measuring Intellectual Power.
• Explaining Individual Differences in IQ Scores.
• Explaining Group Differences in IQ Scores.
• Alternative Approaches to Intelligence.

8. The Development of Language.

• Before the First Word: The Prelinguistic Phase.
• Learning Words and Word Meanings.
• Learning the Rules: The Development of Grammar and Pragmatics.
• Explaining Language Development.
• Individual and Group Differences in Language Development.
• Learning to Read and Write.

V. THE SOCIAL CHILD.

9. Personality Development: Alternate Views.

• Defining Personality.
• Genetic and Biological Explanations.
• Learning Explanations.
• Psychoanalytic Explanations.
• A Possible Synthesis.

10. Concepts of Self, Gender, and Sex Roles.

• The Concept of Self.
• Self-Esteem.
• The Development of Gender and Sex-Role Concepts.
• Cultures and Contexts: Sex Role Stereotypes Around the World.

11. The Development of Social Relationships.

• Relationships with Parents.
• Variations in the Quality of Attachments.
• Relationships with Peers.
• Behavior with Peers.

12. Thinking About Relationships: Social-Cognitive and Moral Development.

• The Development of Social Cognition.
• Moral Development.

VI. THE WHOLE CHILD.

13. The Ecology of Development: The Child Within the Family System.

• Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Approach
• Dimensions of Family Interaction.
• Patterns of Child Rearing.
• Other Aspects of Family Dynamics.
• Family Structure, Divorce, and Parental Employment.

14. Beyond the Family: The Impact of the Broader Culture.

• Nonparental Care.
• The Impact of Schools.
• The Impact of the Entertainment Media.
• Macrosystem Effects: The Impact of the Larger Culture.

Glossary

PSY218: Textbook “The Psychology of Women,” 6th Edition

Chapters Links (click on Chapter title to view chapters)

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Gender Stereotypes and Other Gender Biases

Chapter 3: Infancy and Childhood

Chapter 4: Adolescence

Chapter 5: Cognitive Abilities and Achievement Motivation

Chapter 6: Gender Comparisons in Social and Personality Characteristics

Chapter 7: Women and Work

Chapter 8: Love Relationships

Chapter 9: Sexuality

Chapter 10: Pregnancy, Childbirth, and Motherhood

Chapter 11: Women and Physical Health

Chapter 12: Women and Psychological Disorders

Chapter 13: Violence Against Women

Chapter 14: Women and Older Adults

Chapter 15: Moving Onward

1. Looking at Abnormal Behavior
The program visits the Jackson Memorial Hospital Crisis Center in Miami, where suicidal, depressed, and schizophrenic patients meet with psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers to assess the nature and seriousness of their problems. It also introduces the various theories used to explain and treat abnormal behavior.

2. The Nature of Stress
We see that stress affects many people — from the overworked and out-of-work, to survivors of suicide and homicide, to Vietnam War veterans who continually re-experience the stress of the battlefield. The program explores the long-term effects of stress and what is known about how to reduce them.

3. The Anxiety Disorders
Even in the best of times, we all experience some anxiety. But millions of Americans suffer from major anxiety disorders. This program examines two of the most common, panic with agoraphobia and generalized anxiety disorder, and shows how psychologists are making headway in treating them.

4. Psychological Factors and Physical Illness
This program examines the relationship between emotions and health to explore how psychological treatment can improve well-being. It focuses on a teenager with migraine headaches, a dentist trying to decrease his risk for developing heart disease, and a woman with breast cancer, along with those who are treating them.

5. Personality Disorders
One in ten Americans has a personality disorder. Some are mildly annoying; others are exceedingly dangerous. Viewers will meet individuals with narcissistic, anti-social, borderline, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, including a murderer and a group of women who mutilate themselves, and will learn about the challenges involved in both diagnosis and treatment.

6. Substance Abuse Disorders
Millions of Americans abuse alcohol, cigarettes, and cocaine. Health professionals know a great deal about these dangerous and costly disorders, including how to treat them. This program examines how the concept of treatment matching is used to help individuals overcome a variety of addictions.

7. Sexual Disorders
A man exhibits himself in public. A woman feels guilty about not desiring sex. An otherwise happy couple finds themselves at odds over sex. These people share their private problems and demonstrate how the assessment and treatment of sexual disorders has advanced in the past 25 years.

8. Mood Disorders
Depression is one of the most common psychological problems. In this program, psychologists and biologists look at the causes and treatment of both depression and bipolar disorder and show the progress that has been made in helping people return to productive and satisfying lives.

9. The Schizophrenias
In emotionally moving interviews, this program visits people who suffer from the hallucinations, paranoia, and psychological disarray of these disabling illnesses. In addition to examining symptoms and treatments, the program helps debunk some of the myths associated with the disorder and shows its human side and the strength of those who fight to overcome it.

10. Organic Mental Disorders
A teenager must relearn all the basic skills following a head injury. After years of alcohol abuse, a man loses his short-term memory. A woman sees her husband struggle against the ravages of Alzheimer’s disease. Science and technology’s role in treating these debilitating disorders is also examined in this program.

11. Behavior Disorders of Childhood
Almost all parents worry whether or not their child’s behavior is normal. This program visits families of youngsters with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, conduct disorder, separation anxiety disorder, and autism. In addition, experts in child development and psychology discuss how to differentiate abnormal behavior from developmental stages.

12. Psychotherapies
This program allows viewers to “sit-in” on five distinctly different kinds of psychotherapy: psychodynamic, cognitive-behavioral, Gestalt, couples, and group. Theory and practice are intertwined as these patients progress through therapy, sometimes trying alternative models for the same problem.

13. An Ounce of Prevention
Imagine a society whose citizens are protected from psychological disorders. This final episode visits several programs that are attempting to eliminate known risk factors — including social isolation and inadequate parenting skills — that often lead to serious disorders. The stories are touching; the results are promising.

SR 1

• Understanding of abnormal behavior has not evolved smoothly or uniformly over the centuries;
  
• the steps have been uneven with great gaps between, and unusual–even bizarre–views or beliefs have often sidetracked researchers and theorists.

SR 2

• The dominant social, economical, and religious views of the times have had a profound influence over how people view abnormal behavior.
  

SR 3

• In the ancient world, superstitious explanations for mental disorders were followed by the emergence of medical concepts in many places such as Egypt and Greece;
  
• many of these concepts were developed and refined by roman physicians.

SR 4

• After the fall of Rome near the end of the fifth century A.D., superstitious views dominated popular thinking about mental disorders for over 1,000 years.
  
• In the 15th and 16th centuries, it was still widely believed, even by scholars, that some mentally disturbed people were possessed by a devil.

SR 5

• Great strides have been made in our understanding of abnormal behavior.
  
• For example, during the latter part of the middle ages and the early Renaissance, a spirit of scientific questioning reappeared in Europe, and several noted physicians spoke out against inhumane treatments.
• There was a general movement away from superstitions and “magic” toward reasoned, scientific studies.

SR 6

• With recognition of a need for the special treatment of disturbed people came the founding of various “Asylums” toward the end of the 16th century.
  
• However, institutionalization brought the isolation and maltreatment of mental patients.
• Slowly this situation was recognized, and in the 18th century, further efforts were made to help afflicted individuals by providing them with better living conditions and humane treatment,
• Although these improvements were the exception rather than the rule.

SR 7

• The reform of mental hospitals continued into the 20th century,
  
• But over the last 4 decades of the century there was a strong movement to close mental hospitals and release people into the community.
• This movement remains controversial here in the early part of the 21st century.

SR 8

• The 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a number of scientific and humanitarian advances.
  
• The work of Philippe Pinel in France, of William Tuke in England, and of Benjamin Rush and Dorothea Dix in the United States prepared the way for several important developments in contemporary abnormal psychology.
• Among these were gradual acceptances of mental patients as afflicted individuals who need and deserve professional attention.
• The successful application of biomedical methods to disorders; and the growth of scientific research into the biological, psychological, and sociocultural roots or abnormal behavior.

SR 9

• In the 19th century, great technical discoveries and scientific advancements that were made in the biological sciences enhanced the understanding and treatment of disturbed individuals.
  
• A major biomedical breakthrough, for example, came with the discovery of the organic factors underlying general paresis –syphilis of the brain– one of the most serious mental illnesses of the day.
• In the early part of the eighteenth century, knowledge of anatomy, physiology, neurology, chemistry, and general medicine increased rapidly.
• These advances led to the identification of the biological, or organic, pathology underlying many physical ailments.

SR 10

• The development of a psychiatric classification system by Kraepelin played a dominant role in the early development of the biological role in the early development of the biological viewpoint.
  
• Kraepelin’s work (a forerunner to the DSM system) helped to establish the importance of brain pathology in mental disorders and made several related contributions that helped establish this viewpoint.

SR 11

• The first major steps toward understanding psychological factors in mental disorders were taken by Sigmund Freud.
  
• During five decades of observation, treatment, and writing, he developed a theory of psychopathology, known as “psychoanalysis”, that emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives.
• Over the last half century, other clinicians have modified and revised Freud’s theory, which has thus evolved into new psychodynamic perspectives.

SR 12

• Scientific investigation into psychological factors and human behavior began to make progress in the latter part of the 19th century.
  
• The end of the 19th century and the early 20th century saw experimental psychology evolve into clinical psychology with the development of clinics to study as well as intervene in, abnormal psychology.

SR 13

• Two major schools of learning paralleled this development, and behaviorism emerged as an explanatory model in abnormal psychology.
  
• The behavioral perspective is organized around a central theme–that learning plays an important role in human behavior.
• Although this perspective was initially developed through research in the laboratory (unlike psychoanalysis, which emerged out of clinical practice with disturbed individuals), it has been shown to have important implications for explaining and treating maladaptive behavior.

SR 14

• Understanding the history of psychopathology, its forward steps and missteps alike, helps us understand the emergence of modern concepts of abnormal behavior.
  

Key Terms

asylums (P. 36) historically, these were institutions meant solely for the care of the mentally ill.

behavioral perspective (P. 49) a theoretical viewpoint organized around the theme that leaning is central in determining human behavior.

behaviorism (P. 50) School of psychology that formerly restricted itself primarily to the study of overt behavior.

catharsis (P. 48) discharge of emotional tension associated with something, such as by talking about past traumas.

classical conditioning (P. 49) a basic form of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with an unconditional stimulus (US) that naturally elicits and unconditioned response (UR). After repeated pairings, the neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditional response (CR).

deinstitutionalization (p, 42) movement to close mental hospitals and treat people with severe mental disorders in the community.

dream analysis (p, 48) method involving the recording, description, and interpretation of a patient’s dream.

exorcism (P. 34) religiously inspired treatment procedure designed to drive out evil spirits or forces from a “possessed” person.

free association (P. 48) method for probing the unconcious by having patients talk freely about themselves, their feelings, and their motives.

insanity (P. 37) legal term for mental disorder, implying lack of responsibility for one’s acts and inability to manage ones affairs.

lycanthropy (P. 34) Delusions of being a wolf.

mass madness (P. 33) historically, widespread occurrence of group behavior disorders that were apparent cases of hysteria.

mental hygiene movement (P. 39) movement that advocated a method of treatment focused almost exclusively on the physical well-being of hospitalized mental patients.

mesmerism (p.47) theories of “animal magnetism” (hypnosis) formulated my Anton Mesmer.

moral management (P. 39) Wide-ranging method of treatment that focuses on a patient’s social, individual, and occupational needs.

Nancy School (P. 47) group of physicians in the 19th century Europe who accepted the view that hysteria was a sort of self-hypnosis.

operant conditioning (P. 51) form of learning in which if a particular response in reinforced, it becomes more likely to be repeated on similar occasions.

psychoanalysis (P. 46) Methods Freud used to study and treat patients.

psychoanalytic perspective (P. 46) Theory of psychopathology, initially developed by Freud, that emphasized the inner dynamics of unconscious motives.

Saint Vitus’s dance (P. 33) Name given to the dancing mania (and mass hysteria) that spread from Italy to Germany and the rest of Europe in the Middle Ages.

tarantism (p, 33) Dancing mania that occurred in Italy in the thirteenth century.

unconscious (P. 48) In psychoanalytic theory, a major portion of the mind, which consists of a hidden mass of instincts, impulses, and memories and is not easily available to conscious awareness yet plays an important role in behavior.

PSY208: Textbook Chapters Links

(click on Chapter title to view chapters)

UNIT I:

Chapter 1: Abnormal Psychology: An Overview

• What Do We Mean by Abnormal Behavior?
• How Common Are Mental Disorders?
• Research Approaches in Abnormal Psychology
• The Focus of This Book

Chapter 2: Historical and Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior

• Historical Views of Abnormal Behavior
• Toward Humanitarian Approaches
• Contemporary Views of Abnormal Behavior

Chapter 3: Causal Factors and Viewpoints in Abnormal Psychology

• Causes and Risk Factors for Abnormal Behavior
• The Biological Viewpoint and Biological Causal Factors
• The Psychosocial Viewpoints
• Psychosocial Causal Factors
• The Sociocultural Viewpoint
• Sociocultural Causal Factors

Chapter 4: Clinical Assessment

• The Basic Elements in Assessment
• Assessment of the Physical Organism
• Psychosocial Assessment
• The Integration of Assessment Data
• Classifying Abnormal Behavior

Chapter 5: Stress and Adjustment Disorders

• What Is Stress?
• The Effects of Severe Stress
• Adjustment Disorder: Reactions to Common Life Stressors
• Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: Reactions to Catastrophic Events
• Prevention and Treatment of Stress Disorders

UNIT II

Chapter 6: Panic, Anxiety, and their Disorders

• The Fear and Anxiety Response Patterns
• Overview of the Anxiety Disorders
• Specific Phobias
• Social Phobias
• Panic Disorder With and Without Agoraphobia
• Generalized Anxiety Disorder
• Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
• General Sociocultural Causal Factors for All Anxiety Disorders

Chapter 7: Mood Disorders and Suicide

• What Are Mood Disorders?
• Unipolar Mood Disorders
• Causal Factors in Unipolar Mood Disorders
• Bipolar Disorders
• Causal Factors in Bipolar Disorder
• Sociocultural Factors Affecting Unipolar and Bipolar Disorders
• Treatments and Outcomes
• Suicide

Chapter 8: Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders

• Somatoform Disorders
• Dissociative Disorders

Chapter 9: Eating Disorders and Obesity

• Clinical Aspects of Eating Disorders
• Risk and Causal Factors in Eating Disorders
• Treatment of Eating Disorders
• Obesity
• Treatment of Obesity

Chapter 10: Health Problems and Behavior

• Psychological Factors in Health and Disease
• Cardiovascular Disease
• General Causal Factors in Physical Disease
• Treatments and Outcomes

Unit III

Chapter 11: Personality Disorders

• Clinical Features of Personality Disorders
• Difficulties Doing Research on Personality Disorders
• Categories of Personality Disorders
• Treatments and Outcomes
• Antisocial Personality and Psychopathy

Chapter 12: Substance-Related Disorders

• Alcohol Abuse and Dependence
• Drug Abuse and Dependence

Chapter 13: Sexual Variants, Abuse, and Dysfunctions

• Sociocultural Influences on Sexual Practices and Standards
• Sexual and Gender Variants
• Sexual Abuse
• Sexual Dysfunctions

Chapter 14: Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders

• The Clinical Picture in Schizophrenia
• Subtypes of Schizophrenia
• What Causes Schizophrenia
• Treatment and Clinical Outcome

Chapter 15: Cognitive Disorders

• Brain Impairment in Adults
• Delirium
• Dementia
• Amnestic Syndrome
• Disorders Involving Head Injury
• Treatments and Outcomes

Chapter 16: Disorders of Childhood and Adolescence

• Maladaptive Behavior in Different Life Periods
• Common Disorders of Childhood
• Learning Disorders and Mental Retardation
• Planning Better Programs to Help Children and Adolescents

Chapter 17: Therapies

• An Overview of Treatment
• Measuring Success in Psychotherapy
• What Therapeutic Approach Should Be Used?
• Psychological Approaches to Treatment
• Psychotherapy and Society

Chapter 18: Contemporary and Legal Issues in Abnormal Psychology

• Perspectives on Prevention
• Controversial Legal Issues and the Mentally Disordered
• Organized Efforts for Mental Health
• Challenges for the Future

1. “Gender stereotype” refers to the characteristics we associate with females and males. Prejudice refers to negative attitudes, and discrimination indicates behavior.
2. We have little information about women’s activities throughout history. In general, philosophers emphasized women’s inferiority.
3. Judaism and Christianity both perpetuate women’s inferiority; traditional Chinese’s beliefs and Hinduism also portray negative images of women. Various religions and ancient myths have represented women as evil people, sorceresses and virtuous mothers.
4. The terms use for women often emphasize their secondary status, or these terms may also be negative of infantilizing.
5. Numerous studies have demonstrated that the masculine generic encourages people to think about males more often than females; gender-neutral terms can be easily substituted.
6. The media represents women in a stereotyped fashion. Women are seen and heard less than men are. They are seldom shown working outside the home; more often they appear doing housework. The media treat men more seriously; women’s bodies are also represented differently.
7. Women of color and low income women are particularly likely to be underrepresented or to be represented in a stereotypical fashion.
8. The Media’s stereotyped representation of women can promote stereotyped behaviors, self-image, and attitudes, In addition, people judge women to be less competent if they have been portrayed in gender stereotyped fashion.

People’s Beliefs About Women and Men

1. People believe that men and women differ substantially on a number of personality characteristics. They consider men to be higher in agency and women to be higher in communion. These stereotypes have remained fairly consistent throughout recent decades.
2. People have different stereotypes about women and men from different ethnic groups; in most cases, however, the stereotypes about women include both “good women” and “bad women” within each ethnic group.
3. The strength of your gender stereotype may be influence by such factors as your gender and culture. However the overall consistency of stereotypes is impressive.
4. Psychologist have developed the Implicit Association Test, which assesses the strength of stereotypes in terms of response speed rather than a rating scale measure for which people might provide socially appropriate answers.
5. Women’s competence is likely to be downgraded when:
   • (a) evaluators are male, rather than female,
   • (b) little other information is available,
   • (c) Evaluators are experts,
   • (d) And women act in a stereotypically masculine fashion
6. People typically rate women higher than men on scales assessing pleasantness; however, feminist receive relatively low ratings.
7. Men score higher than women on both the benevolent sexisms and the hostile sexism subscales of the Ambivalent Sexism Inventory.
8. Research shows evidence of gender discrimination in interpersonal interactions (e.g., negative statements about women and sexist comments). Sexism in cultures such as Afghanistan has more serious consequences than it does in North America.
9. Heterosexism is encouraged by strict gender categorization; lesbians and gay males frequently experience harassment, and many are physically assaulted. Men often show more sexual prejudice than women, and people with traditional gender roles are also likely to show more sexual prejudice.

The Personal Consequences of Gender Stereotypes

1. One consequence of gender stereotypes is that we make errors in our cognitive processes; these errors are relevant for the social cognitive approach to stereotypes.
2. According to the social cognitive approach to stereotypes, people tend to:
   • (a) Exaggerate the male experience to be normative
   • (b) Consider the male experience to be normative
   • (c) Make biased judgments about females and males, and
   • (d) Remember gender-consistent information more accurately than gender-inconsistent information.
3. Stereotypes can influence behavior through self-fulfilling prophecies, according to research on topics such as parents’ expectations for their children’s mathematical abilities. Also, the research on stereotype threat shows that peoples own gender stereotypes can undermine task performance on test, when their gender is emphasized.
4. In specific settings, many people adopt flexible self-concepts about gender, rather than internalizing rigid gender stereotypes. Studies also indicate that European Americans may be more likely that other cultural groups to internalize gender Stereotypes. In addition, women and men in US colleges tend to rate themselves similarly on important gender-related traits.

Key Terms

stereotypes (36)

gender stereotypes (36)

prejudice (37)

discrimination (37)

gender bias (37)

androcentrism (40)

normative-male problem (40)

masculine generic (41)

androcentric generic (41)

agency (51)

communion (51)

explicit gender stereotypes (53)

implicit gender stereotypes (54)

hostile sexism (57)

benevolent sexism (57)

lesbian (61)

gay male (61)

bisexual (61)

heterosexism (62)

sexual prejudice (62)

social cognitive approach (64)

gender polarization (65)

attributions (67)

self-fulfilling prophecy (68)

stereotype threat (68)

androgynous (69)

]]> http://psych.myuccedu.com/2009/02/08/psy218-%e2%80%9cchap-2-gender-stereotypes-and-other-gender-bias%e2%80%9d-summary-review/feed/ 0 http://psych.myuccedu.com/2009/02/08/psy205-child-psychology-chapter-3-birth-and-infancy-summary/ http://psych.myuccedu.com/2009/02/08/psy205-child-psychology-chapter-3-birth-and-infancy-summary/#comments Sun, 08 Feb 2009 14:55:38 +0000 JosephEULO http://psych.myuccedu.com/?p=194 Birth

• Most drugs given to a woman during delivery pass through to the infant’s bloodstream and have short-term effects on infancy responsiveness.
  
• In uncomplicated, low-risk pregnancies, delivery at home or in a birth center may be as safe as hospital delivery.
• The presence of the father during delivery has a variety of positive consequences, including reducing the mother’s experience of pain, but being present for the birth does not appear to affect the father’s attachment to the infant.
• The normal birth process has three stages: dilation and effacement, delivery, and placental
  delivery.
• Several types of problems may occur at birth, including reduced oxygen supply to the infant (anoxia).
• Slightly more than one quarter of all deliveries in the US today are by cesarean section.
• Newborns are typically assessed using the Apgar score, which is a rating on five dimensions. (Heart Rate, Respiratory rate, Muscle tone, Response to Stimulation of feet, and Color)
• Most parents show intense interest in the new baby’s features, especially the eyes.
• Infants born weighing less than 2,500 grams are designated as low birth weight (LBW);
  those below 1500 grams are very low birth weight (VLBW);
  those below 1,000 grams are extremely low birth weight (ELBW)
• The lower the weight, the greater risk of neonatal death or of significant lasting problems, such as low IQ score or learning disabilities.

Behavior in Early Infancy

• Infants have a wide range of reflexes.
  
• Some, such as the sucking reflex, are essential for life.
• Other primitive reflexes are present in the newborn but disappear in the first year.
• Cycles of sleeping, waking, and crying are present from the beginning.
• Motor skills are only rudimentary at birth.
• Perceptual skills include the ability to focus both eyes, visually track slowly moving objects; discriminate the mother by sight, smell, and sound; and responds to smells, tastes, and touch.
• Babies cry for several hours per day, on average, with the amount of crying peaking at about 6 weeks.
• Newborns can learn from the first days of life and can habituate to repeated stimulation.
• Babies differ from on another on several dimensions, including vigor of response, general activity rate, restlessness, irritability, and cuddliness.
• Infants develop the ability to express a range of emotions, such as pleasure and distress, over the first year.
• Most parents experience delight and pleasure at their new role, but it also places strains on their relationship.

Health and Wellness in Early Infancy

• Breast milk or formula supply all of an infant’s nutritional needs unitl 4 to 6 months of age.
  
• Babies require periodic check-ups to track their growth and development.
• They also need to immunized against a variety of diseases.
• Common illnesses of childhood include diarrhea, upper respiratory infections, and ear infections.
• Of these, ear infections (otitis media) are often the most serious.
• All forms of upper respiratory illness are more common among children in day care than among those reared at home.
• In the US and other Industrialized countries, most infant deaths in the first weeks are due to congenital anomalies or low birth weight;
• after the first weeks, sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) is the most common cause of death in the first year.
• African American, Hawaiian American, and Native American infants display higher rates of infant mortality than whites and other racial groups in the US.
• Poverty may be a factor, but other groups with similar rates of poverty, such as Hispanic Americans, have lower infant mortality rates than whites.

KEY TERMS

adaptive reflexes (p. 74) reflexes that are essential to the infants survival but that disappear in the first year of life.

anoxia (p. 68) a shortage of oxygen. This is one of the potential risks at birth, and it can result in brain damage if it is prolonged.

Babinski reflex (p. 75) a reflex found in very young infants that cuases them to splay out their toes in response to a stroke on the bottom of the foot.

cephalocaudal (p. 78) one of two basic patterns of physical development in infancy (the other is proximodistal), in which development proceeds from the head downward.

cesarean section (c-section) (p. 68) Delivery of the child through an incision in the mother’s abdomen.

colic (p. 78) a pattern of persistent and often inconsolable crying, totaling more than 3 hours a day, found in some infants in the first 3 to 4 months of life.

difficult child (p. 81) an infant who is irritable and irregular in behavior.

dilation (p. 67) a key process in the first stage of childbirth, during which the cervix widens sufficiently to allow the infant’s head to pass into the birth canal. Full dilation is 10 centimeters.

easy child (p. 81) an infant who adapts easily to change and who exhibits regular patterns of eating, sleeping, and alertness.

effacement (p. 67) the flattening of the cervix, which, along with dilation, is a key process of the first stage of childbirth.

extremely low birth weight (ELBW) (p. 71) Term for any baby born with a weight below 1,000 grams (2.2 pounds)

habituation (p. 80) an automatic decrease in the intensity of a response to a repeated stimulus, enabling a child or adult to ignore the familiar and focus attention on the novel.

low birth weight (LBW) (p. 71) Term for any baby born with a weight below 2,500 grams (5.5 pounds), including both those born too early (preterm) and those who are small for date.

Moro reflex (p. 74) the reflex that causes infants to extend their legs, arms, and fingers, arch the back, and draw back the head when startled (for example by a load sound or a sensation of being dropped).

preterm infant (p. 71) an infant born before 38 weeks gestational age.

primitive reflexes (p. 74) collection of reflexes seen in young infants that gradullt disappear during the first year of life, including the Moro and Babinski reflexes.

proximodistal (p. 78) One of two basic patterns of development in infancy (the other is cephalocaudal), in which development proceeds from the center outward, that is from the trunk to the limbs.

reflexes (p. 74) Automatic body reactions to specific stimulation such as the knee jerk or the Moro reflex. Adults have many reflexes, but the newborn also has some primitive reflexes that disappear as the cortex develops.

respiratory distress syndrome (p. 72) a problem frequently found in infants born more than 6 weeks before term, in which the infant’s lungs lack a chemical (surfactant) needed to keep air sacs inflated.

rooting reflex (p. 74)
The reflex that causes an infant to automatically turn toward a touch on the cheek

schematic learning (p. 80) the developing of expectancies concerning what actions lead to what results or what events tend to go together.

slow-to-warm-up child (p. 81) An infant who may seem unresponsive but who simply takes more time to respond than other infants do.

small-for-date infant (p. 72) An infant who weighs less than is normal for the number of weeks of gestation completed.

states of consciousness (p. 76) the periodic shifts in alertness, sleepiness, crankiness, and so on that characterize an infant’s behavior.

sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (p.87) The unexpected death of an infant who otherwise appears healthy; also called crib death. The cause of SIDS is unknown.

temperament (p. 81) Inborn predispositions that form the foundations of personality.

very low birth weight (VLBW) (p. 71) term for any baby born with a weight below 1,500 grams (3.3 pounds).

1. Sex refers only to biological characteristics related to reproduction (e.g., sex chromosomes); in contrast, gender refers to psychological characteristics (e.g. gender roles). The term doing gender means that we display gender in our social interactions and that we perceive gender in other people during those interactions.
   
2. The social biases to be discussed in the psychology of women textbook include sexism, racism, classism, ableism, heterosexism, and ageism.
3. Feminism emphasizes that women and men should be socially, economically, and legally equal. Women and men who hold these beliefs are feminist; however, many people endorse feminist principles even if they do not identify themselves as feminist.
4. Four feminist perspectives discussed In this section are liberal feminism, cultural feminism, radical feminism, and women-of-color feminism.
   
5. Psychologist typically favor either a gender similarities perspective (often combined with social contructionalism) or a gender differences perspective (often combined with essentialism).
   

A Brief History of the Psychology of Women

1. Most early research on gender examined gender differences and emphasized female inferiority; however, Helen Thompson Woolley and Leta Stetter Hollingsworth conducted gender-fair research.
2. Gender research was largely ignored until the 1970s, when the psychology of women became an emerging field in both the United States and Canada. However, researchers in that era underestimated the complexity of the issues; in addition, women were often blamed for their own low status.
3. Current research on gender is widespread and interdisciplinary; the knowledge base continues to change as a result of this research.

Women and Ethnicity

1. In North American culture, being White is normative; as a result, White individuals may mistakenly believe that they do not belong to any ethnic group.
2. Latinas/os share a languages well as many values and customs, but their other characteristics vary tremendously. Latinas often comment that they must frequently cross boundaries between Latina culture and European American culture.
3. Blacks constitute the third-largest ethnic group inthe United States. Blacks differ from one another with respect to their residential community and their family’s history.
4. Asian Americans also come from diverse backgrounds. Although they are considered the ideal minority, they often experience discrimination and stressful work conditions.
5. Even though Native Americans and Canadian Aboriginals share a common geographic origin and history, they represent numerous different native backgrounds.
6. The variability within any ethnic group-or subgroup-is always large.
7. Another form of bias that is related to ethnic bias is U.S.-centered nationalism, in which U.S. residents believe that their country has higher status than other countries; for example, the U.S. government believes our

   Problems and Biases in Current Research
   

1. When researchers formulate their hypotheses, biases can influence their theoretical orientation, the research they consider relevant, and the topics they choose to investigate.
2. When researchers design their studies, biases can influence how they          choose their operational definitions, participants, and the people who conduct the research; another bias is the inclusion of confounding variables.
3. When researchers perform their studies, biases may include researcher expectancy as well as the participants’ expectations.
4. When researchers interpret their results, biases may include ignoring practical significance, overlooking alternative explanations, and over generalizing the findings.
5. When researchers communicate their findings, gender differences may be over reported; the title of the paper may emphasize gender differences; articles that demonstrate gender difference may receive preference; and the popular media may distort the research.
6. An important part of critical thinking is being alert for biases; critical thinking  requires you to ask thoughtful questions, determine whether the evidence supports the conclusions, and propose alternative interpretations for the evidence.

KEY TERMS

sex (3)
gender (4)
doing gender (4)
sexism (4)
racism (4)
classism (5)
ableism (5)
heterosexism (5)
ageism (5)
feminism (5)
liberal feminism (6)
cultural feminism (6)
radical feminism (6)
women-of-color feminism (7)
Similarities perspective (7)
social constructionism (8)
Differences perspective (8)
essentialism (9)
White-as-normative concept (13)
U.S.-centered nationalism (18)
operational definition (21)
variable (21)
empathy (22)
confounding variable (22)
researcher expectancy (23)
statistical significance (24)
practical significance (24)
critical thinking (26)
gender as a subject variable (29)
gender as a stimulus variable (29)
androcentric (29)

To better understand the eclectic approach (Eclecticism), think about how ideas drawn from several theories might help us better understand a child’s disruptive behavior in school.

Observations of the child’s behavior and her classmates’ reactions may suggest that her behavior is being rewarded by the other children’s responses (a behavioral explanation).

Deeper probing of the child’s family situation may indicate that her acting-out behavior reflects an emotional reaction to a family event such as divorce (a psychoanalytic explanation).

The emotional reaction may arise from her inability to understand why her parents are divorcing (a cognitive-developmental explanation).

When appropriately applied, each of these perspectives can help us gain insight into developmental issues. Moreover, we can integrate all of them into a more complete explanation than any of the perspectives alone could provide us with.

Observational research studies things as they are. Experimental research involves manipulating one variable (the independent variable) and seeing what effect this has on another variable (the dependant variable).Mere correlation between variables does not enable us to conclude that there is a casual relationship between them. Simply put, correlation does not equal causation.

Although most experiments involve studies of groups, single-case experimental designs (e.g. ABAB designs) can also be used to make causal inferences in individual cases. Analogue studies (e.g. animal research) are studies that provide an approximation to the human disorder of interest. Although generalizability can be a problem, animal research in particular has been very informative.

Chapter 1 Definitions

ABAB design (p12): An experimental design, often involving a single subject, wherein a baseline period (A) is followed by a treatment (B). To confirm that the treatment resulted in a change in behavior, the treatment is then withdrawn (A) and reinstated (B).

Abnormal behavior (p11): Maladaptive behavior detrimental to an individual and or a group.

Acute (p.15): Term use to describe a disorder of sudden onset, usually with intense symptoms.

Analogue studies (p.23): Studies in which a researcher attempts to emulate the conditions hypothesized as leading to abnormality.

Case study (p.16): An in-depth examination of an individual or family that draws from a number of data sources, including interviews and psychological testing.

Chronic (p.15): Term used to describe a long standing or frequently recurring disorder, often with progressing seriousness.

Comorbidity (p14): is the term used to describe the presence of two or more disorders in the same person.

Comparison or control group (p.19): Group of subjects who do not exhibit the disorders being studied but who are comparable in all other aspects to the criterion group. Also, a comparison group of subjects who do not receive a condition or treatment the effects of which are being studied.

Criterion group (p.19): Group of subjects who exhibit the disorder under study.

Dependent variable (P. 20): In an experiment, the factor that is observed to change with changes in the manipulated (independent) variables.

Direct observation (P. 16): Method of collecting research data that involves directly observing behavior in a given situation.

Double-blind study (P. 4): Often use in studies examining drug treatment effects, a condition where neither the subject nor the experimenter has knowledge about what specific experimental condition (or drug) the subject is receiving.

epidemiology (P. 12): Study of the distribution of diseases, disorders, or health realted behaviors in a given population. Mental health epidemiology is the study of the distribution of mental disorders.

experimental research (P. 21): research that involves the manipulation of a given factor or variable with everything else held constant.

family aggregation (P. 3): The clustering of certain traits, behaviors, or disorders within a given family. Family aggregation may arise because of genetic or environmental similarities.

incidence (P. 13): Occurrence (onset) rate of a given disorder in a given population.

independent variable (P. 20): Factor whose effect are being examined and which is manipulated in some way while other variables are held constant.

labeling (P. 8): Assigning a person to a particular diagnostic category such as schizophrenia.

lifetime prevalence (P. 13): The proportion of living persons in a population who have ever had a disorder up to the time of the epidemiological assessment.

negative correlation (P. 20): A relationship between two variables such that a high score on one variable is associated with a low score on another variable.

nomenclature (P. 6): a formulized naming system.

observational research (P. 19): In contrast to experimental research (which involves manipulating variables in some way and seeing what happens), in observational research the researcher simply observes or assesses the characteristics of different groups, leaning about them without manipulating the conditions to which they are exposed. Sometimes called correlational research, although the former is the preferred term.

One-year prevalence (P. 12): the number of cases of a specific condition or disorder that are documented in a population within a one-year period.

placebo (P. 4): an inert pill or otherwise neutral intervention that produces desirable therapeutic effects because of the subject’s expectations that it will be beneficial.

point prevalence (P. 12): the number of cases of a specific condition or disorder that can be found in a population at one given point in time.

positive correlation (P. 20): A relationship between two variables such that a high score on one variable is associated with a high score on another variable.

prevalence (P. 12): In a population, the proportion of active cases of a disorder that can be identified at a given point in, or during a given period of, time.

prospective research strategy (P. 20): Method that often focuses on individuals who have a higher-than-average likelihood of becoming psychologically disordered before abnormal behavior is observed.

retrospective strategy (P. 20): Method of trying to uncover the probable causes of abnormal behavior by looking backward from the present.

sampling (P. 18): The process of selecting a representative subgroup from a defined population of interest.

self-report data (P. 16): Data collected directly from participants, typcially by means of interviews or questionnaires.

Single case research design (P. 21): An experimental research design (e.g. an ABAB design) that involves only one subject.

stereotyping (P. 8): The tendency to jump to conclusions (often negative) about what a person is like based on beliefs about that group that exist (often incorrectly) in the culture (e.g., French people are rude, homosexuals have good taste in clothes, mental patients are dangerous, etc)

stigma (P. 8): Negative labeling.

symptom (P. 9): Patient’s subjective description of a physical or mental disorder.

syndrome (P. 9): Group or pattern of symptoms that occur together in a disorder.